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CLECTIOTrPE  CO.,  SOfTO 


OUR  UNITED  STATES 

A  HISTORY 


BY 

WILLIAM   BACKUS   GUITTEAU,   Ph.D. 

SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    TOLEDO,    OHIO 
AUTHOR    OF    "GOVERNMENT    AND    POLITICS 
IN    THE    UNITED    STATES,"    "PREPAR- 
ING   FOR    CITIZENSHIP,"    ETC. 


SILVER,   BURDETT    AND    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  BOSTON  CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO 


eri 


Copyright,  1919,  by 
SILVER,   BUEDETT   AND   COMPANY 

Published  October,  1919 


PREFACE 

The  momentous  events  of  the  last  five  years  have  demon- 
strated conclusively  that  our  history  textbooks  must  be  written 
from  a  new  viewpoint.  The  story  of  our  national  life  should 
not  be  told  as  a  narrative  separate  and  distinct  from  that  of 
the  rest  of  the  world.  The  American  Revolution,  for  example, 
is  no  longer  to  be  studied  as  an  isolated  event,  resulting  from 
British  injustice.  On  the  contrary,  it  should  be  placed  in 
its  true  light  as  one  phase  of  a  larger  revolution  against  kingly 
usurpation.  In  this  revolt,  Englishmen  living  in  the  New  World 
played  a  leading  part,  encouraged  and  sustained  by  the  knowl- 
edge that  their  action  was  approved  by  many  of  the  foremost 
British  statesmen  of  the  day.  So  with  the  War  of  1812,  which 
takes  on  a  new  aspect  when  viewed  as  an'  incident  in  the 
Napoleonic  Wars,  rather  than  as  a  British-American  contest. 
Throughout  this  book,  therefore,  special  emphasis  has  been 
placed  upon  the  relations  of  the  United  States  to  other  countries, 
in  order  that  the  young  citizens  who  study  it  may  realize  more 
fully  the  importance  of  our  world  relations  and  our  world 
responsibilities. 

An  earnest  effort  has  also  been  made  to  give  due  emphasis 
to  many  events,  usually  neglected,  which  throw  a  clearer  light 
on  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
Such  incidents  as  the  Rush-Bagot  agreement  of  1817,  the  divided 
attitude  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain  during  the  Civil  War, 
and  the  friendly  attitude  of  the  British  government  during  the 
Spanish-American  War  are  significant  events,  the  narration  of 
which  should  dispel  the  old  illusion  that  Britain  is  our  tradi- 
tional enemy.  It  is  time  that  our  citizens  realized  that  the 
welfare  and  the  happiness  of  mankind  are  largely  in  the  keeping 
of  the  great  democracies  of  the  world ;  and  our  history  teaching 
should  draw  closer  the  bonds  of  common  sympathy  and  under- 

54. W  2 


VI  PREFACE 

standing  which  have  recently  united  our  people  to  these  democ- 
racies and  to  the  newly  liberated  peoples  of  Europe. 

Throughout  this  volume,  the  larger  emphasis  has  been  placed 
upon  social  and  industrial  history.  Such  vital  topics  as  the 
industrial  revolution,  the  westward  movement,  the  rise  and 
control  of  large  corporations,  questions  of  labor,  of  the  tariff, 
money,  and  banking,  —  these  have  received  much  more  than 
the  usual  space.  However,  in  writing  the  story  of  our  wars,  the 
author  has  proceeded  upon  the  theory  that  if  the  story  is  worth 
telling  at  all,  it  is  worth  telling  well.  Therefore,  an  endeavor 
has  been  made  to  present  a  vivid  narrative  of  military  cam- 
paip^is^  rather  than  a  mere  colorless  summary.  Teachers  will 
find  the  story  of  the  campaigns  of  the  Civil  War  narrated  from 
the  geographical  point  of  view,  a  method  of  approach  which 
clears  away  the  difficulties  of  the  story  when  told  merely  as 
a  chronology  of  events. 

Above  all,  the  author  has  kept  in  view  the  dominant  pur- 
pose in  present-day  teaching  of  history  and  government ;  that 
is,  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  intelligent,  helpful  citizenship 
through  the  study  of  our  country's  history,  its  ideals,  and 
institutions.  History  teaching  worthy  of  the  name  no  longer 
tolerates  the  mere  recital  of  facts,  dates,  and  names,  or  the 
answering  of  stereotyped  questions  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 
Rather,  our  teachers  of  history  will  draw  from  the  events  of 
the  past  their  underlying  significance ;  and  they  will  relate  the 
past  to  the  present  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  in  the  minds  of 
the  pupils  high  ideals  of  American  citizenship  and  of  political 
conduct. 

The  entire  manuscript  has  been  carefully  read  by  my  friend, 

Dr.   Herman  V.   Ames,   of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania; 

and  I  am  deeply  indebted  to  him  for  many  helpful  criticisms  and 

suggestions.     The  author  will  also  appreciate  any  suggestions 

from  those  who  use  this  book,  especially  from  the  teachers  of 

history,  upon  whom   the  success  of   any  textbook  so  largely 

depends. 

William  Backus  Guitteau. 

Toledo,  Ohio, 
August  30,  1919. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 


PART  I 
DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION    (1492-1607) 


The  Way  to  Cathay 1 

The  Discovery  of  a  New  World              ...  9 

Spanish  and  English  Explorations          ...  20 

French  and  Dutch  Explorations              ...  32 

Early  America  —  The  Land  and  the  People  42 


PART   II 
COLONIZATION   OF  THE   NEW  WORLD    (1607-1763) 


VI.  The  Old  Dominion 

VII.  The  Other  Southern  Colonies 

VIII.  The  New  England  Colonies 

IX.  The  Middle  Colonies 

X.  The  Struggle  for  a  Continent 

XI.  Life  in  Colonial  Times 


57 
69 
78 
96 
111 
126 


XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 

XV. 


PART  III 

THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION    (1763-1783) 

The  Quarrel  with  the  Mother  Country 
The  Dawning  of  Independence 
The  Campaigns  in  the  Middle  States 
The  Closing  Years  of  the  Revolution 


143 
160 
175 
189 


PART   IV 

THE  NEW  REPUBLIC    (1783-1812) 

XVI.     The  Critical  Period  under  the  Confederation  209 

XVII.     Making  the  Federal  Constitution          .         .  .     221 

XVIII.     Setting  the  New  Government  in  Motion      .  .     234 

XIX.     Our  Difficult  Foreign  Relations           .         .  .     244 

XX.     The  Policies  of  Jefferson       .....     256 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PART  V 
THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY    (1812-1840) 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXI.     The  War  of  1812 269 

XXII.     New  Tools  and  New  Methods  of  Production  287 

XXIII.  Pushing  the  Frontier  Westward       .         .         .  293 

XXIV.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  and  the  Missouri  Com- 

promise    ........  305 

XXV.     New  Systems  of  Transportation        .         .         .  315 

XXVI.     Jacksonian   Democracy 327 

XXVII.     How  Democracy  Changed  American  Life          .  341 


PART   VI 

SLAVERY  AND   THE   WEST    (1840-1860) 

XXVIII.  Our  Great  Westward  Expansion 

XXIX.  Our  War  with  Mexico 

XXX.  Shall  the  New  Territory  be  Slave  or 

XXXI.  The  Struggle  for  Kansas  . 

XXXII.  The  Crisis  of  Secession 

XXXIII.  Social  and  Industrial  Growth 


.  351 
.  362 
Free?  369 
.  383 
.  391 
.     403 


PART   VII 

THE  CIVIL  WAR    (1860-1865) 

XXXIV.  The  Appeal  to  Arms 

XXXV.  The  War  in  the  West 

XXXVI.  The  War  in  the  East 

XXXVII.  Civil  Affairs  during  the  War 


415 
429 
441 
456 


PART   VIII 

THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER    (1865-1918) 

XXXVIII.  Restoring  the  Broken  Union    ....  465 

XXXIX.  Thirty  Years   of  Foreign  Affairs,    1865-1895  480 

XL.  The  New  West  and  the  New  South         .         .  488 

XLI.  The  Age  of  Big  Business 501 

XLII.  Political  and  Economic  Reforms       .         .         .  512 

XLIII.  The  War  with  Spain 525 

XLIV.  Our  Own  Times  and  Its  Problems    .         .         .  536 

XLV.  The  Progress  of  a  Half  Century,   1865-1915  554 

XLVI.  Democracy  on  Trial  in  the  World  War    .         .  569 

XLVII.  The  Turning  of  the  Tide 595 

XLVIII.  Democracy's  Victory  and  Its  Meaning    .         .  617 


CONTENTS 


IX 


APPENDIX 

PAQE 

Declaration  of  Independence       ......  i 

Constitution  of  the  United  States      .....  v 

Area,  Population,  and  Electoral  Votes  of  the  States,  1912  xxiii 

Presidents  and  Vice  Presidents  of  the  United  States         .  xxiv 

Index xxv 


LIST   OF   REFERENCE   MAPS 


The  United  States  and  Possessions 

The  World  as  Europeans  Knew  It  before  1492 

Trade  Routes  to  the  East    .         . 

Toscanelli's  Map 

The  Four  Voyages  of  Columbus 

Famous  World  Voyages        . 

Spanish  Voyages  of  Exploration  and  Conquest 

French  and  Dutch  Explorations 

Indian  Tribes  of  North  America 

Principal  English  Grants,  1606-1665    . 

Early  Settlements  in  Virginia 

The  Other  Southern  Colonies 

The  New  England  Colonies 

New  Netherland  and  New  Sweden 

French  Forts  and  Portage  Routes 

The  Ohio  Valley  Country     .... 

The  Middle  Colonies  during  the  French  and  Indian  War 

Colonial  North  America  before  the  French  and 

War  —  1750 

Colonial  North   America   after  the   French   and 

War— 1763 

Boston  and  Vicinity  in  1775 

Campaigns  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States 

The  West  during  the  Revolution 

Campaigns  in  the  Southern  States 

North  America  at  the  Close  of  the  Revolution 

The  Westward  Movement   .... 

The  United  States  in  1783 

Exploring  the  Great  West,  1803-1806 

The  United  States  in  1803 

The  Campaigns  in  the  North,  the  West,  and  in 

Washington  ..... 

Campaigns  in  the  Southwest 
The  Westward  Movement,  1820-1835     . 
The  United  States  in  1820  .... 
The  Route  of  the  National  Road,  1812-1840 
Transportation  Competition  for  the  Western  Trade 
Texas  and  the  Mexican  War        .... 


Front  cover  lining 

2 


the 


Indian 

Facing 
Indian 
Facing 


Facing 

Facing 
Vicinity  of 


Facing 


5"* 
10^. 
13 
17  ^ 

21"" 

38^ 

48' 

59 

65 

73 

91 

97 
115 
118 
123 

128 

128 
166 
177 
191 
197 
210 
213 
216 
261 
264 

272 
281 
300 
311 
316 
320 
365 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Oregon  and  the  Mexican  Sessions         .         .         .        Facing  370 

The  United  States  in  1850 379 

The  United  States  in  1854 388 

Strategy,    Blockade,    and    Restriction    of    Confederate 

Territory    ........        Facing  422 

Campaigns  in  the  West 432 

Campaigns  in  the  East 443 

Railroad  Development  in  the  West 495 

The  Five  German  Drives  of  1918                   598 

The  Allied  Counter-Offensives     ....        Facing  606 

Territorial  Changes  in  Europe     ....        Facing  630 
The  World  Showing  the  United  States  and  Possessions 

Back  cover  lining 
(The  titles  in  small  capital  letters  indicate  color  maps.) 


xu 


OUR    UNITED    STATES 

A  HISTORY 

CHAPTER   I 
THE   WAY  TO   CATHAY 

Early  Ideas  about  the  Land  and  the  Sea.  In  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  common  people  of  Europe  knew  less  about  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  earth  than  is  known  to-day  by  almost  every 
child.  They  thought  of  the  earth,  not  as  a  great  sphere  whirling 
through  space,  but  as  a  flat  plain  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
the  ocean.  This  ocean  was  the  Atlantic,  a  dark  waste  of  un- 
explored waters  which  fancy  and  superstition  filled  with  all 
sorts  of  horrors.  There  were  monster  sea-serpents,  and  ter- 
rible whirlpools  which  swallowed  up  both  ships  and  sailors ; 
there  was  a  fiery  zone  at  the  equator  which  no  man  might 
cross ;  there  was  —  so  runs  the  story  in  the  Arabian  Nights  — 
a  mysterious  Island  of  Lodestone,  which  drew  the  nails  from 
the  ships  and  wrecked  them. 

Many  centuries  before,  learned  men  like  Aristotle  had  asserted 
their  belief  that  the  earth  is  round ;  but  as  late  as  the  fifteenth 
century,  only  the  few  accepted  this  idea.  Concerning  the  size 
of  the  earth,  men  were  almost  as  much  mistaken  as  about  its 
shape.  European  navigators  knew  only  their  own  continent, 
and  parts  of  two  others  —  southern  Asia,  and  a  narrow  strip  of 
Africa.  Naturally,  they  thought  of  the  earth  as  much  smaller 
than  it  really  is  ;  for  they  did  not  even  dream  of  the  existence  of 
North  and  South  America,  or  Australia.  It  is  hard  for  us  to-day  to 
understand  why  so  little  was  then  known  about  geography.  But 
these  early  navigators  lacked  the  means  necessary  to  make  long 
voyages.  Their  ships  were  so  small  that  even  the  boldest  sailors 

1 


2  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

of  our  own  time  would  hesitate  to  put  to  sea  in  them,  much  less 
to  venture  across  the  Atlantic.  The  maps  and  charts  of  those 
days  were  inaccurate  and  incomplete,  nor  did  early  navigators 
have  that  steadfast  friend  of  the  sailor,  the  mariner's  compass. 
3  But  the  greatest  obstacle  of  all  to  early  navigation  was  fear  of 
-3  the  unknown,  mysterious  ocean,  —  a  fear  based  upon  ignorance, 
like  the  child's  fear  of  the  dark. 


The  World  as  Europeans  Knew  it  before  1492 


The  Crusades  and  the  East,  1096-1272.  The  history  of  the 
ancient  world  centered  about  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  life  of  Europe  was  still  grouped 
about  its  shores.  But  at  length  the  nations  of  Europe  began  to 
take  more  interest  in  the  countries  of  the  East,  and  became  eager 
to  learn  more  about  the  people  and  geography  of  Asia.  This 
result  was  due  chiefly  to  the  Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars  of  the  Cross. 
These  expeditions  were  organized  by  the  rulers  of  Europe  in  order 
to  rescue  the  Holy  Land  and  the  tomb  of  Christ  from  the  infidel 
Turks.  The  Church  favored  the  movement,  and  promised  salva- 
tion to  those  who  became  soldiers  of  the  Cross.  During  the 
eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries,  thousands  of  Euro- 
peans took  part  in  the  Crusades,  and  on  returning,  told  their 
countrymen  about  the  wonderful  things  they  had  seen  in  the  East. 


THE   WAY  TO  CATHAY  3 

The  Revival  of  Learning.  Another  influence  that  increased 
Europe's  interest  in  the  East  was  the  Revival  of  Learning,  which 
began  in  the  twelfth  century.  When  the  barbarian  tribes  over- 
whelmed imperial  Rome  in  476  a.d.,  the  culture  and  civiliza- 
tion of  the  ancient  world  became  lost  to  Europe  for  nearly  eight 
hundred  years.  The  period  that  followed  the  downfall  of  Rome 
is  called  the  Dark  Ages,  for  during  these  long  centuries  the 
people  of  Europe  were  densely  ignorant.  Science  and  education 
could  make  no  headway  because  of  the  constant  warfare  and  the 
disorganized  condition  of  society. 

But  from  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries,  a  few 
European  scholars  began  to  study  the  art  and  literature  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  The  invention  of  printing  (1450)  brought 
about  a  general  increase  and  spread  of  knowledge,  and  Europe 
began  to  get  the  benefit  of  the  achievements  of  the  ancient 
world  in  art  and  letters,  as  well  as  in  government  and  law.  The 
stimulus  of  the  new  movement  was  felt  in  every  field  of  human 
endeavor.  Trade  and  manufactures  increased,  and  people 
became  eager  to  travel  and  learn  about  other  countries.  The 
spirit  of  enterprise  was  in  the  air ;  men  began  to  awake  to  new 
ideas  and  to  have  a  new  confidence  in  their  own  powers.  Grad- 
ually the  Dark  Ages  disappeared  before  a  new  age  of  enlighten- 
ment and  progress.  This  new  era  is  called  the  Renaissance  or 
New  Birth,  because  the  world  seemed  to  be  born  again.  This 
intellectual  advance  made  the  fifteenth  century  an  age  of  dis- 
covery and  exploration,  a  time  that  could  bring  forth  such  men 
as  Columbus  and  Magellan. 

Europe  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  What  kind  of  country  was 
that  Europe  which  forms  the  background  of  our  American 
history  ?  Not  the  Europe  which  we  know  to-day,  teeming  with 
people,  divided  into  strong  national  states,  with  many  great 
industries,  and  a  commerce  covering  every  corner  of  the  globe. 
On  the  contrary,  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century  was  thinly 
inhabited,  its  entire  population  being  under  fifty  millions, 
or  about  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain  to-day.  Agriculture 
on  a  primitive  scale  was  everywhere  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people.    Manufacturing  was  in  the  household  stage  of  develop- 


a 


4  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

ment ;  nearly  all  of  its  processes  were  carried  on  by  hand  labor, 
for  steam  was  unknown  as  a  motive  power,  while  mechanical 
devices  were  few  and  crude.  Mediterranean  commerce  had 
created  a  few  nourishing  cities,  Venice  and  Genoa  being  the 
chief  rivals  for  trade  with  the  Far  East.  Paris,  too,  was  a 
considerable  city,  but  its  population  was  under  two  hundred 
thousand.  London  was  merely  an  overgrown  town,  Berlin  was 
a  fishing  village,  and  Petrograd  did  not  exist  at  all. 

As  a  rule,  the  people  of  Europe  were  not  united  under  strong 
national  governments,  but  owed  allegiance  to  a  large  number 
of  petty  rulers.  Only  a  few  powers,  Austria,  France,  Spain,  and 
England,  could  be  called  nations  in  the  sense  that  we  use  the 
word  to-day.  Government  was  everywhere  monarchical  in  form, 
except  in  Switzerland  and  in  the  free  cities  of  Italy  and  Germany. 
The  powers  of  the  monarch  were  unlimited  except  for  the 
important  privileges  belonging  to  the  Church  and  the  nobles. 
The  people  had  no  voice  in  their  government,  and  of  course  no 
share  in  education,  which  was  only  for  the  favored  few.  Their 
part  was  to  till  the  soil,  to  pay  the  taxes,  and  to  fight  the  battles 
of  their  overlords.  But  the  age  of  feudalism  was  passing,  and 
the  Revival  of  Learning  brought  about  a  new  era  in  which  the 
people  were  to  have  some  share  in  education  and  in  government. 

In  the  age  of  Columbus,  western  Europe  had  a  single  religion, 
for  Protestantism  did  not  have  its  beginning  until  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Throughout  all  western  Europe,  the  Pope 
or  Bishop  of  Rome  was  acknowledged  as  the  supreme  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  while  the  people  of  Russia  and 
southeastern  Europe  belonged  to  the  Greek  Catholic  Church, 
with  its  head  at  Constantinople. 

Trade  Routes  to  the  East.  As  a  result  of  the  Crusades, 
Europe  looked  to  Asia  for  such  luxuries  as  spices,  drugs,  jewels, 
rare  woods,  silks,  rugs,  and  ivory.  There  were  three  important 
trade  routes  leading  to  Asia  and  the  Far  East.  The  northern 
route  started  from  Genoa,  and  after  crossing  the  Mediterranean 
to  Constantinople,  passed  through  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas 
into  China.  The  southern  route  started  from  Venice,  passed 
through  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  Alexandria,  then  by  caravan 


THE  WAY  TO  CATHAY 


to  the  Red  Sea  and  on  across  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  middle 
route  began  at  Antioch  and  made  its  way  through  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  India. 

The  trade  routes  were  long  and  difficult,  and  fraught  with 
danger.  Chinese  or  Malay  junks  and  long-winding  caravans 
brought  the  products  of  the  Orient  to  Constantinople,  Alexan- 
dria, or  Antioch.    At  these  ports,  European  merchants  bartered 


Northern  Route 

Used  by  Genoa 

Middle  Route 

Southern  Route. 

I'*,-*/  hi/   W'nice 


Trade  Routes  to  the  East 

with  the  Arab  traders,  offering  them  linens,  woolen  goods,  glass 
vessels,  and  wines  in  exchange  for  the  coveted  silks,  spices, 
perfumes,  rugs,  and  porcelains.  After  the  Arabs  had  taken  a 
rich  toll,  for  their  services  as  middlemen,  the  Oriental  wares 
were  loaded  on  the  Italian  trading  fleets,  to  be  distributed 
throughout  Europe. 

The  commerce  with  Asia  gave  employment  to  thousands  of 
men,  and  made  Venice  and  Genoa  the  wealthiest  cities  of 
Europe.  European  merchants  kept  in  close  touch  with  the 
"  Indies,"  a  vague  term  used   to  denote  southeastern  Asia, 


6  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

as  well  as  China  and  Japan.  Cathay  (China)  was  the  name 
given  to  the  farthermost  land  lying  on  the  border  of  the  great 
Eastern  Ocean.  This  country  took  a  strong  hold  on  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  people.  It  was  reported  to  have  a  large  population, 
hundreds  of  wealthy  cities,  and  to  abound  in  all  the  luxuries 
of  the  time.  Farther  eastward  lay  Cipango  (Japan),  an  in- 
distinct island  country  about  which  almost  nothing  was  known. 

Marco  Polo  and  His  Travels,  1271-1295.  Europe's  informa- 
tion about  the  Indies  came  from  the  reports  of  a  few  bold 
travelers,  the  most  famous  of  whom  was  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian. 
Marco  Polo  traveled  with  his  father  and  uncle,  merchants  who 
made  a  remarkable  journey  to  northern  China  or  Cathay. 
They  remained  for  twenty  years  in  Peking,  returning  at  last 
by  way  of  India,  the  Red  Sea  and  Cairo,  then  back  to  Venice 
by  crossing  the  Mediterranean.  Marco  Polo  afterwards  became 
a  political  prisoner  in  Genoa,  and  to  while  away  the  time,  wrote 
the  story  of  his  travels.  This  famous  book  told  of  a  vast  eastern 
ocean  beyond  the  land  of  Cathay,  an  account  which  seemed  to 
confirm  the  belief  of  the  older  writers  that  the  earth  is  round, 
and  that  this  ocean  east  of  China  might  be  the  same  as  that 
which  washed  the  shores  of  western  Europe.  A  copy  of  Polo's 
book  afterwards  came  into  the  hands  of  Christopher  Columbus, 
and  helped  form  his  idea  of  the  earth  as  a  sphere. 

The  Turks  Cut  Off  the  Trade  Routes.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Ottoman  Turks,  whose  westward  advance  was  only 
delayed  by  the  Crusaders,  began  a  desperate  move  on  Constanti- 
nople. This  important  city  fell  into  their  hands  in  1453.  The 
result  was  to  cut  off  the  trade  from  Genoa  to  the  East  by  way  of 
the  Black  Sea  route.  As  the  Turks  spread  their  power  and 
influence  throughout  Asia  Minor  toward  Egypt,  the  other  trade 
routes  were  also  closed.  A  new  route  between  Europe  and  the 
East  must  be  found.  A  few  thoughtful  men  began  to  ask  them- 
selves, "  Might  not  Cathay  and  the  Indies  be  reached  by  an 
ocean  route?  " 

Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  Spain  and  Portugal  began  to 
see  that  their  trade  would  be  increased  by  the  discovery  of  an 
ocean  route  to  the  Far  East.  Foremost  among  the  men  eager  to 


THE   WAY   TO   CATHAY  7 

experiment  for  a  new  route  was  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator, 
of  Portugal.  Prince  Henry  was  an  earnest,  devout  man,  anxious 
above  all  to  find  a  route  which  would  divert  the  trade  of  the 
Orient  from  infidel  to  Christian  countries.  He  assembled  around 
him  students,  mariners,  and  scientific  men,  and  established  a 
school  of  navigation  on  lonely  Cape  St.  Vincent,  which  the 
ancients  had  supposed  the  westernmost  limit  of  the  habitable 
world.  Under  his  direction,  Portugal  entered  upon  a  glorious 
period  of  pioneer  work  in  attempting  to  find  a  new  sea  route. 

Scientific  Inventions.  The  efforts  of  Prince  Henry  and  his 
associates  could  not  have  been  so  successful  without  the  scien- 
tific inventions  just  then  coming  into  common  use.  The  compass, 
by  which  the  ship's  direction  can  be  told  in  all  kinds  of  weather, 
and  the  astrolabe,  an  instrument  to  determine  position  with 
regard  to  the  stars,  gave  the  mariner  more  confidence ;  for 
the  first  time  he  felt  that  he  could  sail  out  of  sight  of  land 
with  comparative  safety.  Then  the  invention  of  paper,  and 
the  newly  discovered  art  of  printing,  were  making  books  of 
travel  and  geography  more  accessible.  Finally,  the  invention 
of  gunpowder  gave  the  explorer  added  security  against  such 
people  as  he  should  find  who  still  depended  upon  spears  and 
arrows. 

The  Portuguese  Sail  Around  Africa  to  India.  Before  the  old 
trade  routes  were  entirely  closed,  the  Portuguese  had  begun  the 
work  of  finding  a  new  sea  route.  By  the  year  1460,  Portuguese 
navigators  had  visited  all  the  island  groups  off  the  coast  of 
Africa,  the  Madeiras,  the  Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  Many  people  began  to  believe  that  a  voyage 
around  the  southern  point  of  Africa  would  bring  the  mariner 
to  India.  Portuguese  discoveries  made  exploration  popular, 
and  created  a  bold  school  of  navigators.  Attracted  by  the  slave 
trade  and  the  lure  of  a  fabled  "  gold  coast,"  they  crept  farther 
and  farther  down  the  shore  of  Africa.  At  last,  in  1487,  Bar- 
tholomew Diaz  sailed  around  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa, 
but  failed  to  reach  India  because  of  the  furious  gales.  Diaz 
named  the  headland  which  he  had  passed  the  "  Stormy  Cape  "  ; 
but  King  John  of  Portugal  christened  it  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 


8  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

because  it  seemed  to  promise  so  much.  Among  the  shipmates  of 
Captain  Diaz  on  his  famous  voyage  was  Bartholomew,  the 
younger  brother  of  Christopher  Columbus. 

About  ten  years  later,  Vasco  da  Gama  followed  up  the  work 
of  Diaz  by  crossing  the  Indian  Ocean  to  Calicut  in  southern 
India.  This  completed  the  proof  of  the  route  to  India  by  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa.  Well  might  the  king  of  Portugal 
exult  over  this  voyage.  The  first  mariner  to  reach  India  by 
ocean,  Da  Gama  had  actually  visited  Arab  cities,  bringing 
back  spices,  jewels,  silks,  and  tapestries.  Under  Prince  Henry's 
leadership,  Portugal  had  been  the  pioneer  in  exploring  the  ocean 
route  to  the  far-famed  Indies ;  the  voyage  of  Da  Gama  won  for 
the  little  kingdom  the  honor  of  first  reaching  the  coveted  goal. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  23-27. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People  (Riverside  Series), 

pp.  1-12. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  I. 
Cheyney,  E.  P.,  European  Background  of  American  History  (American 

Nation  Series),  chs.  I-IV. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Hall,  Jennie,  Our  Ancestors  in  Europe,  pp.  341-349. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Patriots  and  Statesmen,  I,  pp.  31-35. 
Johnson,  W.  H,  French  Pathfmders  in  North  America,  chs.  IV-V. 
Johnson,  W.  H,  The  World's  Discoverers,  chs.  II,  VIII-XI. 
Parkman,  Francis,  The  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  69-82. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Early  Ideas  about  the  Earth.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Ex- 
ploration and  Discovery,  ch.  I ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  I, 
chs.  III-IV;   Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  I. 

2.  The  Crusades.  Gordy,  W.  F.,  American  Beginnings  in  Europe, 
chs.  XIX-XX ;   Hall,  Jennie,  Our  Ancestors  in  Europe,  pp.  329-333. 

3.  Marco  Polo.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Exploration  and  Dis- 
covery, ch.  Ill ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  I,  p.  280 ;  John- 
son, W.  H.,  The  World's  Discoverers,  ch.  I. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE   DISCOVERY    OF   A   NEW   WORLD 


Christopher  Columbus.  All  this  travel  toward  Asia  paved  the 
way  for  some  bold  mariner  to  act  on  the  theory  that  by  sailing 
to  the  west,  "  the  Indies  in  the  East  might  be  readily  found." 
The  man  for  this  undertaking  was  Christopher  Columbus,  the 
son  of  a  humble  woolcomber  of  Genoa.  Born  about  the  year 
1446  or  1447,  Columbus  was 
a  sailor  on  the  Mediterranean 
at  the  age  of  fourteen.  He 
soon  became  a  fearless  navi- 
gator, as  well  as  an  expert 
maker  of  maps  and  charts. 
About  the  year  1471  Colum- 
bus went  to  Lisbon  to  live. 
There  he  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  one  of  Prince  Henry's 
navigators,  and  later  made 
his  home  on  the  island  of 
Porto  Santo.  From  this 
island  Columbus  sailed  on 
Portuguese  ships  as  far  south 

as  Guinea,  and  north  possibly 

r  t     i      j      rni  Christopher  Columbus 

as    far    as    Iceland.    These  r 

voyages,  with  his  study  of  maps  and  charts,  helped  him  form 

his  idea  of  a  western  route  to  India.     Columbus  was  firm  in 

the  belief  that  the  earth  is  round ;  so  he  reasoned  that  by 

sailing  westward,  he  could  come  to  China  and  Japan  in  the  East. 

Toscanelli's  Map.  Toscanelli,  a  native  of  Florence  and  the  most 

famous  astronomer  of  his  day,  shared  this  belief.     Toscanelli 

wrote  letters  to  Columbus  setting  forth  his  ideas  about  the  shape 

9 


10 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 


of  the  earth,  and  he  may  have  sent  him  a  copy  of  a  map  that  he 
had  made.  This  map  showed  the  shape  of  the  earth  as  a  sphere, 
and  located  the  eastern  countries  visited  by  Marco  Polo.  Tos- 
canelli  underestimated  the  size  of  the  earth,  and  so  he  placed 
Japan  where  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  actually  is.  Neither  he  nor 
Columbus  dreamed  of  a  continent  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
We  know  that  Columbus  made  a  careful  study  of  Marco  Polo's 
book  of  travels,  for  the  copy  that  he  used  has  been  preserved, 
with  his  own  notes  written  on  the  margin  of  the  pages. 


Columbus  Seeks  Aid.  While  Diaz  was  on  his  way  back  to 
Portugal  after  discovering  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  route, 
Columbus  was  seeking  aid  for  his  voyage  to  the  west.  He  first 
offered  his  services  to  Genoa,  then  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  who 
called  him  a  dreamer.  Finally  he  turned  to  the  rulers  of  Spain, 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  Spanish  monarchs  were  making  a 
final  effort  to  drive  the  Moors  out  of  Spain,  and  so  had  little 
time  for  Columbus  or  his  plans.  Still  they  commanded  him  to 
argue  his  cause  before  a  council  of  learned  men  at  Salamanca. 
Again  was  he  pronounced  a  dreamer.  "  If  the  earth  were 
round,"  jeered  the  skeptics,  "  the  men  on  the  other  side  of  it 
would  have  to  walk  with  their  heads  downward,  while  rain  and 
snow  must  fall  upward.  "  For  seven  long  years,  Columbus 
pleaded  in  vain  at  the  Spanish  court.    Meantime  his  brother 


THE   DISCOVERY   OP   A  NEW  WORLD 


11 


Bartholomew,  back  from  the  famous  Diaz  voyage,  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  secure  help  from  King  Henry  VII  of 
England. 

At  last  Columbus  gave  up  hope  of  securing  aid  at  the  Spanish 
court,  and  started  for  France  to  make  the  same  appeal  that 
Spain  had  rejected.  Shortly  after  he  reached  the  little  town  of 
Palos  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  a  messenger  arrived  from  Queen 


Exact  Reproduction  of  the  Santa  Maria  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, 1893,  now  in  Jackson  Park,  Chicago 


Isabella  to  summon  him  back.  After  all  these  years  of  disap- 
pointment and  failure,  Columbus  was  to  have  his  chance.  Queen 
Isabella  herself  gave  most  of  the  money  with  which  to  equip 
three  small  sailing  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Nina,  and  the 
Pinta.  The  vessels  themselves  were  provided  by  the  town  of 
Palos ;  the  crews  consisted  of  about  ninety  unwilling  men,  some 
of  whom  were  recruits  from  Spanish  jails. 

Columbus  Sails  Westward.     A  little  before  sunrise  on  August 
3,   1492,  the  people  of  Palos  watched  the  three  small  ships 


12  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

start  on  the  world's  most  famous  voyage.  The  Santa  Maria 
was  chosen  for  the  flagship  because  it  was  the  largest,  although 
only  about  sixty-five  feet  over  all.  The  other  two  vessels  were 
commanded  by  the  Pinzon  brothers,  wealthy  citizens  of  Palos. 
The  route  lay  south  to  the  Canaries,  island  colonies  of  Spain. 
From  this  point,  Columbus  meant  to  sail  straight  across  the 
Atlantic  to  the  fabled  Chinese  cities  of  Marco  Polo  as  shown  on 
the  Toscanelli  map. 

Six  days  after  leaving  Palos  the  expedition  reached  the 
Canaries,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  week  in  September  it  was 
fairly  launched  upon  the  open  sea.  Panic  terror  filled  the  hearts 
of  the  crew  as  land  faded  from  sight  on  the  eastern  horizon,  and 
the  dark  waste  of  waters  unrolled  before  their  gaze.  But  added 
terrors  were  in  store  for  them.  As  the  ships  sailed  westward, 
the  compass  needle  swayed  more  and  more  to  the  northwest, 
instead  of  pointing  toward  the  north  star.  About  the  middle 
of  September,  masses  of  seaweed  were  encountered,  suggesting 
hidden  shoals  and  all  the  old  stories  of  impassable  seas.  Worst 
of  all,  the  tradewinds  blew  steadily  from  the  east,  and  the 
wretched  sailors  feared  that  there  would  never  be  a  western  wind 
to  carry  them  home. 

Discovery  of  America,  1492.  The  crew  and  even  some 
of  the  officers  were  on  the  point  of  mutiny,  almost  ready  to 
throw  overboard  the  admiral  who  steered  so  relentlessly  to- 
ward the  west.  While  they  were  plotting,  flocks  of  birds  were 
seen  overhead,  apparently  a  promise  of  land.  About  two 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  October  12,  1492,  the  lookout  at  the 
masthead  of  the  Pinta  joyfully  shouted,  "  Land  ahead !  "  and 
the  ships  soon  cast  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  a  little  island  of  the 
Bahama  group.  The  boats  were  lowered  at  dawn  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  and  Columbus  with  most  of  his  men  went  ashore. 

The  first  act  of  the  pious  admiral  was  to  give  thanks  to  God 
for  the  happy  ending  of  his  voyage.  A  host  of  copper-colored 
men,  women,  and  children  looked  on  with  awe  and  amazement 
as  Columbus  drew  his  sword  and  planted  the  banner  of  Spain 
on  the  land  which  he  claimed  for  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
Columbus  supposed  that  he  had  reached  the  outlying  islands 


THE   DISCOVERY  OF  A  NEW  WORLD 


13 


The  Four  Voyages  of  Columbus 

of  India,  so  he  called  the  natives  Indians.  This  name,  based 
upon  a  mistaken  idea,  has  always  clung  to  the  original  inhabit- 
ants of  the  New  World.  Later,  still  in  search  of  Japan  or 
China,  he  coasted  among  the  West  Indies,  visiting  Cuba  and 
Haiti.  Returning  to  Spain  in  January,  1493,  the  great  ad- 
miral was  received  with  every  mark  of  favor  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella. 

Later  Voyages  and  Death  of  Columbus.  Columbus  made 
three  other  voyages  to  the  New  World  which  he  still  thought 
to  be  India.  His  second  voyage  was  in  1493,  when  with  a 
splendid  fleet  of  seventeen  ships  and  thirteen  hundred  men,  he 
sailed  to  plant  a  Spanish  settlement  in  Haiti.  The  colony  was 
unsuccessful ;  little  gold  was  found,  while  starvation  and  sick- 
ness cost  many  lives.  The  third  voyage  was  made  five  years 
later,  along  the  coast  of  South  America.  Columbus  discovered 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River,  and  concluded  that  so  large  a 
stream  must  flow  out  of  a  vast  continent.  On  his  fourth  and 
last  voyage  in  1502,  he  passed  along  the  coast  of  Honduras. 
While  Columbus  was  making  his  later  voyages,  Vasco  da  Gama 
had  reached  the  real  Indies  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
(1498).  This  Portuguese  success  overshadowed  the  costly  ex- 


14  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

peditions  of  Columbus,  which  brought  no  immediate  returns. 
The  admiral  had  bitter  enemies  among  the  Spanish  grandees, 
and  on  his  third  voyage  they  placed  him  under  arrest  and  sent 
him  home  in  irons.  Although  the  king  and  queen  promptly 
ordered  his  release,  they  did  not  restore  his  former  privileges. 
For  example,  Columbus  was  not  again  permitted  to  act  as 
governor  of  the  lands  that  he  discovered,  as  guaranteed  under 
his  original  compact. 

When  Queen  Isabella  died,  Columbus  lost  his  only  protector. 
His  enemies  became  more  powerful,  and  the  last  days  of  his 
life  were  passed  in  sickness  and  poverty.  His  sons  were  jeered 
at  in  the  streets  as  "  the  sons  of  the  Admiral  of  the  Land  of 
Mosquitoes."  Columbus  died  at  Valladolid  in  1506,  probably 
without  knowing  that  he  had  discovered  a  New  World.  Neg- 
lected and  unhonored  at  his  death,  it  remained  for  future  ages 
to  give  him  his  just  fame.  The  great  achievement  of  Columbus 
was  due  not  so  much  to  his  true  notion  of  the  shape  of  the  earth, 
as  to  the  heroic  spirit  which  alone  made  possible  his  first  im- 
mortal voyage.  Other  men  had  reasoned  that  the  earth  is  a 
sphere ;  Columbus  was  the  first  to  put  his  theory  to  the  test  of 
action. 

The  Northmen  Visit  America.  Columbus  was  by  no  means 
the  first  European  to  visit  the  shores  of  America.  Far  to  the 
north  of  Europe,  on  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  lived  a  people 
whose  roving  sailors  probably  reached  America  as  early  as 
1000  a.d.  The  Northmen  were  sturdy,  fair-haired  warriors, 
whose  chief  aim  in  life  was  conquest  and  adventure.  Roaming 
the  sea  in  their  long  boats,  they  visited  and  colonized  Iceland 
and  distant  Greenland.  In  one  of  these  voyages  from  Norway 
to  Greenland,  the  Norse  leader,  Leif  Ericson,  missed  his  way. 
According  to  Norse  tradition,  he  landed  upon  a  strange  coast 
west  and  south  of  Greenland,  probably  either  Nova  Scotia  or 
some  part  of  New  England.  The  Northmen  built  huts  and  spent 
the  winter  in  this  region,  which  they  named  Vinland  or  Wine- 
land  because  the  wild  grapes  were  so  abundant.  Several  visits 
to  this  new  coast  were  made,  but  the  difficulty  of  the  voyage  and 
the  hostility  of  the  Indians  at  last  put  an  end  to  the  expeditions. 


THE   DISCOVERY   OP  A  NEW  WORLD  15 

Since  the  Northmen  were  cut  off  by  sea  from  the  rest  of  Europe, 
the  story  of  their  voyages  was  not  generally  known ;  and  even 
if  known,  the  importance  of  the  discovery  could  not  have 
been  appreciated  by  the  ignorant  Europeans  of  the  eleventh 
century.  If  Columbus  made  a  visit  to  Iceland,  he  may  have 
talked  with  sailors  who  were  familiar  with  the  tales  of  the  Norse 
sea  rovers. 

Division  of  the  Newly  Discovered  Lands.  With  the  dis- 
coveries of  Columbus  and  Vasco  da  Gama,  Spain  and  Portugal 
became  active  rivals  for  the  islands  and  wealth  of  the  Indies. 
To  prevent  disputes  between  the  two  nations,  Pope  Alexan- 
der VI  issued  a  decree  dividing  the  new  discoveries.  The  Pope 
drew  an  imaginary  line  north  and  south  through  the  middle  of 
the  Atlantic.  He  announced  that  all  lands  west  of  this  line 
should  belong  to  Spain,  while  all  east  of  it  should  belong  to 
Portugal.  The  two  countries  afterwards  agreed  upon  a  new 
line,  three  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands.  This  gave  all  of  the  New  World  to  Spain,  except  the 
eastern  portion  of  Brazil. 

Voyages  of  the  Cabots.  An  active  maritime  nation  like 
England  was  not  likely  to  accept  this  division  of  the  New 
World  between  her  rivals,  Spain  and  Portugal.  Ignoring  the 
Pope's  decree,  King  Henry  VII  of  England  authorized  an 
Italian  navigator,  John  Cabot,  to  explore  and  take  possession  of 
"  all  newly  found  ports,  countries,  and  seas,  of  the  East,  the 
West,  and  of  the  North.' '  Cabot  sailed  from  Bristol  in  1497, 
with  one  small  ship  and  eighteen  men.  After  a  three  months' 
voyage,  during  which  he  probably  explored  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,  Cabot  returned  with  the  report  that  he  had  reached 
"  the  territory  of  the  Grand  Khan."  Like  Columbus,  Cabot 
thought  that  he  had  found  the  Indies.  John  Cabot  made  a 
second  voyage  one  year  later,  perhaps  accompanied  by  his  son 
Sebastian.  This  voyage  is  a  matter  of  doubt  and  dispute, 
but  the  expedition  may  have  explored  the  North  American 
coast  from  Labrador  as  far  south  as  Chesapeake  Bay.  One 
thing  is  certain :  the  account  book  of  the  frugal  King  Henry 
contains  an  entry,  "To  him  who  found  the  New  Isle,  £10." 


16 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 


,1 


Surely  not  an  excessive  reward,  for  upon  the  Cabot  voyages 

England  afterwards  based  her  claim  to  the  whole  of  North 

America. 

The  Naming  of  America.     Another  explorer  who  made  at 

least  three  voyages  to  South  America  was  Americus  Vespucius, 

an  Italian  merchant  in  the 
employ  first  of  Spain  and 
later  of  Portugal .  Vespucius 
wrote  interesting  letters 
about  his  travels,  and  boldly 
claimed  that  he  had  discov- 
ered a  new  world.  "  I  have 
found,"  he  wrote,  "a  con- 
tinent more  thickly  in- 
habited by  people  and  ani- 
mals than  is  Europe,  Asia, 
or  Africa.  It  might  properly 
be  called  a  new  world."  In 
the  year  1507,  a  geographer 
gave    the    name    America 

to   the  southern   continent 
Americus  Vespucius  which)    he    ^    Americus 

had  discovered.  Gradually  the  name  America  was  also  applied  to 
the  northern  continent,  which  at  last  men  learned  was  not  India. 

Balboa  Discovers  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1513.  Another  famous 
explorer,  Balboa,  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  he  called 
the  South  Sea.  Balboa  was  a  bankrupt  Spanish  planter  who, 
to  escape  his  creditors,  joined  an  expedition  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  While  the  Spaniards  were  wrangling  with  the  natives 
over  some  fifty  pounds  of  gold,  one  of  the  Indians  lost  patience 
and  rebuked  them  for  their  greed,  adding :  "I  will  she  we  you  a 
region  flowing  with  golde  where  you  may  satisfie  your  ravening 
appetites.  .  .  .  When  you  are  passing  over  these  mountaines 
(poynting  with  his  finger  towards  the  south  mountaines)  you  shall 
see  another  sea  where  they  sayle  with  ships  as  big  as  yours.  " 

In  search  of  this  land  of  gold,  Balboa  started  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  (Panama).     A  difficult  march  of  eighteen 


18  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

miles  through  the  dense  tropical  forest  brought  him  to  a  moun- 
tain peak  from  which  he  could  see  a  vast  expanse  of  water. 
Descending  to  the  coast,  Balboa  waded  out  into  the  rising  tide 
and  claimed  possession  for  Spain  of  the  u  South  Sea  "  and  all 
the  shores  that  it  washed.  Another  honor  besides  his  discovery 
of  the  Pacific  belongs  to  Balboa,  for  it  was  he  who  first  sug- 
gested that  a  canal  be  dug  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to 
connect  the  two  oceans. 

Magellan  Sails  Around  the  World.  Columbus  had  searched 
for  a  new  route  to  the  East,  Vespucius  and  the  Cabots  had 
touched  on  a  new  continent,  and  Balboa  had  found  a  new  ocean. 
But  the  vast  extent  of  the  newly  discovered  region  was  not 
known  until  the  world  voyage  of  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  Portu- 
guese navigator  in  the  employ  of  Spain.  Magellan  was  a  man 
"  small  in  stature,  who  did  not  appear  in  himself  to  be  much  "  ; 
but  he  made  one  of  the  greatest  voyages  in  the  history  of 
navigation.  It  was  in  September,  1519,  that  Magellan  sailed 
for  the  west  with  five  wornout  ships  and  a  treacherous  crew  of 
some  three  hundred  men.  Passing  along  the  coast  of  South 
America,  he  made  his  way  through  the  straits  that  bear  his 
name,  and  suddenly  came  out  into  a  vast  expanse  of  calm 
sea.  So  marked  was  the  contrast  to  the  stormy  Atlantic  through 
which  he  had  just  passed  that  he  named  it  the  Pacific,  that  is, 
the  Peaceful  Ocean.  Day  after  day,  week  after  week,  Magellan 
held  on  his  course  to  the  Spice  Islands  of  the  East.  Sickness  and 
starvation  reduced  his  crew,  but  at  last  the  expedition  reached 
the  Philippines.  Here  the  heroic  commander  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  natives,  and  few  of  his  followers  ever  reached  home. 
Only  one  ship  out  of  five,  the  Victoria,  finally  crossed  the  Indian 
Ocean,  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  at  last,  three 
years  out  from  Spain,  sailed  with  eighteen  survivors  into  the 
port  of  San  Lucar. 

Results  of  Magellan's  Voyage.  Magellan's  voyage  had  im- 
portant results,  for  his  ship  had  sailed  around  the  entire  world. 
It  was  now  settled  that  the  lands  discovered  by  Columbus 
and  other  navigators  were  not  islands  off  the  coast  of  Asia, 
but  were  part  of  an  immense  continent,  a  New  World  in  a 


THE   DISCOVERY   OP  A  NEW  WORLD  10 

western  hemisphere.  The  voyage  also  proved  that  the  ocean 
between  America  and  Asia  was  by  far  the  largest  body  of  water 
on  the  globe;  and  therefore  this  globe  was  much  larger  than 
Toscanelli  and  Columbus  believed.  Since  Magellan  had  found 
that  there  was  no  passage  through  the  continent  south  of  the 
equator,  all  further  search  for  this  route  must  be  made  to  the 
north.  The  next  age  of  explorers,  Spanish,  French,  English,  and 
Dutch,  gave  their  countrymen  clearer  ideas  about  the  size  of 
the  new  continent  by  tracing  its  coast  line  and  exploring  the 
adjacent  islands.  But  they  found  no  northwest  passage,  no 
fountain  of  youth,  and  no  cities  of  gold. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  II. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  25-30. 
Bourne,  E.  G.,  Spain  in  America  (American  Nation  Series),  chs.  Ill— 

V,  VII,  IX. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  I— II. 

SPECIAL    TOPICS   FOR   PUPILS 

1.  Columbus.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Exploration  and  Dis- 
covery, chs.  VI-VII  ;  Barstow,  C.  L.,  Explorers  and  Settlers  (Century 
Readings),  pp.  15-34  ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  I,  chs.  V- 
VI  ;  Hall,  Jennie,  Our  Ancestors  in  Europe,  pp.  360-368  ;  Hart, 
A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Patriots  and  Statesmen,  I,  pp.  36-40  ;  Halsey, 
Frank  W.,  Editor,  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  I,  pp.  23-27  ; 
Johnson,  W.  H.,  The  World's  Discoverers,  chs.  III-VII. 

2.  Magellan.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Exploration  and  Discovery  f 
ch.  IX  ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  II,  ch.  VII  ;  Hall, 
Jennie,  Our  Ancestors  in  Europe,  pp.  368-375  ;  Halsey,  Frank  W., 
Editor,  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  I,  pp.  82-91  ;  Johnson, 
W.  H.,  The  World's  Discoverers,  chs.  XII- XVII. 


CHAPTER   III 
SPANISH   AND    ENGLISH   EXPLORATIONS 

Spain's  Progress  in  the  New  World.  From  the  voyage  of 
Columbus  until  late  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  history  of 
America  is  the  story  of  Spanish  exploration  and  conquest. 
During  this  period,  Spain  extended  her  settlements  from  the 
West  Indies  and  Florida  around  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
South  America,  and  north  to  the  Gulf  of  California.  At  first 
the  new  continent  was  regarded  as  little  more  than  an  obstacle 
in  the  path  of  trade  with  the  Indies.  But  with  the  discovery  of 
the  rich  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  America  took  on  a  value  of 
its  own.  It  was  the  lust  for  gold  that  led  on  the  Spanish  adven- 
turers, Ponce  de  Leon,  Cortez,  Coronado,  and  De  Soto ;  it  was 
the  immense  treasure  from  the  New  World  that  became  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  great  Spanish  empire  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  This  same  golden  stream  at  length  undermined  Spanish 
character  and  industry,  and  led  England  to  enter  the  lists 
against  Spain  in  the  contest  for  world  empire. 

The  West  Indies  and  Florida.  The  first  permanent  Spanish 
colony  in  the  New  World  was  on  the  island  of  Hispaniola  or 
Haiti,  where  Columbus  founded  the  town  of  Isabella  on  the 
north  coast.  From  Haiti  as  a  center,  the  Spaniards  extended 
their  dominion  over  Porto  Rico,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba.  They  next 
set  out  from  the  West  Indies  to  explore  the  mainland  of  North 
America.  The  first  voyage  to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  mainland 
was  made  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  an  aged  warrior  who  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  and  who  remained  to  seek  his 
fortune  in  the  New  World.  In  Porto  Rico,  Ponce  de  Leon 
was  told  of  an  island  to  the  north  where  gold  abounded,  and 
where  there  was  a  wonderful  fountain  whose  waters  restored 
youth  to  the  aged.   Ponce  de  Leon  sailed  through  the  Bahamas 

20 


SPANISH  AND   ENGLISH  EXPLORATIONS 


21 


Spanish  Voyages  of  Exploration  and  Conquest 


in  search  of  this  island,  and  on  Easter  Sunday,  1513,  anchored 
off  the  present  site  of  St.  Augustine.  Florida,  or  the  Land  of 
Flowers,  he  named  the  low-lying  shore  with  its  mass  of  green 
foliage ;  then  sailing  southward  along  the  coast,  he  rounded  the 
peninsula  and  went  up  the  west  side. 

The  Conquest  of  Mexico,  1519-1521.  The  year  1519,  fa- 
mous in  the  history  of  exploration  because  of  Magellan's 
voyage,  also  saw  the  conquest  of  Mexico.  This  expedition 
was  sent  out  by  the  governor  of  Cuba,  and  consisted  of  five 
hundred  men  under  the  command  of  Hernando  de  Cortez, 
the  boldest  of  Spanish  explorers.  West  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
lay  the  Aztec  empire,  a  military  despotism  of  warlike  tribes 
under  the  rule  of  a  chief  named  Montezuma.  The  country  was 
rich  in  gold  and  silver,  and  the  people  were  skilled  in  a  crude  sort 
of  art  and  architecture.  They  worked  in  copper  and  gold,  and 
built  splendid  stone  temples  where  human  sacrifices  played  an 
important  part  in  their  worship.  One  of  the  Mexican  traditions 
told  of  a  fair  god  who  would  come  from  the  east  to  conquer 


22  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

the  gods  of  darkness.  Cortez  took  advantage  of  this  super- 
stition, and  after  scuttling  his  ships  to  destroy  all  hope  of  re- 
treat, marched  upon  the  capital  city  of  Montezuma's  empire. 
By  a  mixture  of  daring  and  audacity  he  entered  the  City  of 
Mexico,  made  the  Aztec  ruler  a  prisoner,  and  added  his  empire 
to  the  possessions  of  Spain.  Mexico  proved  to  be  the  richest 
country  found  by  the  Spaniards  with  the  single  exception  of 
Peru,  whose  silver  mines  were  seized  by  Pizarro  about  ten 
years  later. 

Coronado 's  Exploration  of  the  Southwest,  1540-1542. 
Mexico  in  turn  succeeded  the  West  Indies  as  the  starting  point 
of  new  exploring  expeditions.  From  Mexico,  the  Spanish 
leader  Coronado  marched  across  the  deserts  of  Arizona  until 
he  finally  reached  New  Mexico.  Here  he  found  that  the  "  Seven 
Cities  "  of  which  he  had  heard  such  wonderful  reports  were 
merely  Pueblo  villages  of  the  Zuni  Indians,  with  their  curious, 
many-roomed  houses  of  mud  and  stones.  There  was  no  gold, 
and  so  Coronado  continued  northward.  He  discovered  the 
Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  and  pushed  on  to  a  point  near 
the  center  of  Kansas.  Discouraged  at  last,  Coronado  began  the 
march  back  to  Mexico.  He  had  found  neither  gold  nor  wealthy 
kingdoms,  but  by  exploring  a  vast  extent  of  country,  his  expedi- 
tion gave  the  Spaniards  some  knowledge  of  the  Southwest. 

Discovery  of  the  Mississippi,  1541.  While  Coronado  was 
wandering  over  what  is  now  the  state  of  Kansas,  another 
Spaniard  was  exploring  the  country  a  few  hundred  miles  toward 
the  southeast.  Hernando  de  Soto,  a  distinguished  soldier  and 
governor  of  Cuba,  was  commissioned  by  the  king  to  conquer 
and  settle  the  whole  region  now  included  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States.  Landing  at  Tampa  Bay  with  a  force  of 
six  hundred  men,  De  Soto  marched  through  a  part  of  what  is 
now  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi  to  western 
Tennessee.  Here  the  expedition  came  to  "a  great  river,  alwaies 
muddie,  down  which  there  came  continually  manie  trees  and 
timbers."  It  was  the  Mississippi,  the  Father  of  Waters.  Cross- 
ing the  river  near  the  present  site  of  Memphis,  De  Soto  con- 
tinued an  uncertain  wandering  toward  the  west.   Next  year  the 


SPANISH   AND   ENGLISH   EXPLORATIONS  23 

heroic  leader  died,  and  his  body,  weighted  with  sand,  was  buried 
in  the  river  that  he  had  discovered.  His  followers  managed  to 
build  seven  rude  boats  in  which  they  floated  down  the  river  to 
the  sea,  then  along  the  Gulf  Coast  to  Mexico.  Thus  ended, 
more  than  four  years  after  the  start  from  Tampa  Bay,  the 
greatest  exploring  expedition  in  the  history  of  North  America. 

St.  Augustine,  Our  Oldest  City.  The  Spanish  government 
sent  Menendez,  an  able  but  merciless  leader,  to  colonize  Florida. 
He  found  a  colony  of  French  Protestants  or  Huguenots  located 
near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's  River.  Enraged  because  the 
French  had  made  a  settlement  in  what  Spain  considered  her 
lawful  territory,  Menendez  captured  and  put  to  the  sword  nearly 
all  of  the  French  colonists.  He  then  built  a  fort,  and  the  settle- 
ment around  it  became  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States, 
St.  Augustine  (1565). 

Spain's  Empire  in  the  New  World.  By  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  Spanish  pathfinders  had  explored  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Cape  Horn,  and  the  Pacific  coast 
from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  north  to  Oregon.  They  had 
conquered  the  empire  of  the  Aztecs  in  Mexico  and  that  of  the 
Incas  in  Peru,  and  the  wealth  of  their  mines  became  the 
foundation  of  Spain's  power  in  Europe.  The  southwestern 
part  of  what  is  now  the  United  States  had  been  visited  by 
Coronado  and  De  Soto ;  while  other  Spanish  adventurers  had 
explored  the  interior  of  South  America.  Spain's  empire  in  the 
New  World  was  organized  into  two  kingdoms :  (1)  New  Spain, 
comprising  the  West  Indies  and  the  mainland  north  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama ;  and  (2)  Peru,  which  included  the  isthmus 
and  all  territory  to  the  south,  except  Brazil.  Spain  claimed  but 
did  not  develop  the  northern  region  afterwards  settled  by 
Englishmen.  The  gold  of  the  regions  to  the  south  was  the  lure 
which  drew  the  Spanish  explorers  away  from  the  north. 

Religion  and  Education  —  the  Spanish  Missions.  The  work 
of  converting  the  natives  to  Christianity  followed  close  upon 
the  conquest  of  their  country.  The  old  temples  and  idols  were 
destroyed,  and  every  town  was  required  to  have  its  church  and 
hospital,   besides   a  school   where  the   Indian   children   were 


24 


DISCOVERY   AND  EXPLORATION 


instructed  in  the  Spanish  language  and  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  In  the  outlying  districts,  missions  were  established 
where  the  Indians  were  taught  to  read,  and  trained  to  peaceful 

and    industrious 
lives. 


soon 


Colonists 
came     to 


group  themselves 
about  the  mis- 
sions, which 
gradually  devel- 
oped into  settle- 
ments. In  this 
way  the  missions 
served  both  to 
convert  the  na- 
tives, and  to 
form  the  out- 
posts of  an  ad- 
vancing coloni- 
zation. The  mis- 
sions spread  from 
California  and 
Texas  to  Para- 
guay and  Chile; 
and  many  places 
in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  our 
country    are  to- 

These  Missions  were  established  wherever  the  Indians 

were  to  be  Christianized.     The  Indians  themselves  built  day  named  from 

the  churches  under  the  direction  of  the  Mission  Fathers.  £hem 

Though  differing  in  design  from  each  other,  the  churches  ' 

almost  uniformly   inclosed  courtyards  ornamented  with  Many   mstltu- 

fountains  and  decorated  with  trees  and  shrubbery  along  ^Jons     of     higher 

the  cloisters.  . 

learning  were  es- 
tablished in  Spanish  America  at  a  very  early  date.  The  first 
college  was  founded  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1535,  and  others 
soon  followed.  Both  in  numbers  and  in  the  standard  of  work 
done,  the  Mexican  colleges  of  the  sixteenth  century  probably 


Mission  San  Luis  Rey,  near  San  Diego,  California 


SPANISH  AND   ENGLISH   EXPLORATIONS  25 

surpassed  those  of  English  America  until  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  printing  press  was  introduced  in  Mexico  in  1536  ;  imposing 
public  buildings  were  constructed,  such  as  colleges  and  hospitals  ; 
while  throughout  New  Spain  there  were  larger  and  wealthier 
cities  than  anywhere  in  the  English  colonies.  Thus  the  Spaniards 
did  a  great  work  in  giving  to  a  large  part  of  the  New  World  the 
benefit  of  their  own  culture  and  civilization.  Although  Spain's 
colonies  finally  threw  off  her  rule  and  became  independent, 
they  have  kept  her  language  and  her  religion  as  a  permanent 
heritage. 

How  Spain  Governed  Her  Empire.  Neither  Spain  nor  her 
colonies  knew  the  meaning  of  self-government.  New  Spain  and 
Peru  were  ruled  by  viceroys  who  were  the  personal  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Spanish  monarch.  Their  power  was  nearly 
absolute,  although  there  was  an  appointive  council  to  which 
perplexing  questions  of  government  might  be  referred.  Laws  for 
Spanish  America  were  made  by  the  king  of  Spain  through  the 
Council  of  the  Indies.  This  body  was  appointed  by  the  king, 
and  had  full  legislative  and  judicial  powers  over  the  colonies. 

By  the  year  1574,  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  Spaniards 
were  living  in  the  New  World.  They  had  founded  two  hundred 
towns  and  cities,  while  eight  thousand  Indian  villages  were  under 
their  rule.  Most  of  the  Indians  had  been  converted  to  a  nominal 
Christianity  ;  but  after  their  baptism  they  were  shown  no  mercy 
by  the  gold-loving  Spaniards.  Compelled  to  work  in  the  mines 
for  six  or  eight  months  of  each  year,  the  Indians  found  it  impos- 
sible to  pay  the  tribute  exacted  by  their  conquerors.  Disease 
and  overwork  threatened  to  exterminate  the  natives ;  and  in 
1502  Spain  began  to  import  the  stronger  blacks  of  Africa  to 
take  their  places.  Spain  kept  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  her 
colonies,  for  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  they  were  planted 
for  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country.  Harsh  and  absolute 
as  was  Spain's  colonial  policy,  it  did  not  differ  greatly  from 
that  of  other  European  nations  except  that  the  Spanish  system 
was  more  strictly  enforced.  Spain's  colonies  suffered  not  so 
much  because  the  mother  country  meant  to  oppress  them, 
as  from  the  unwise  laws  which  sacrificed  colonial  interests  in 


26  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

order  to  protect  Spain's  manufactures  and  trade.  At  times,  too, 
the  Spanish  colonists  were  the  victims  of  unscrupulous  officials 
sent  over  to  rule  them. 

The  Beginning  of  Spain's  Decline.  Spain  reached  the  height 
of  her  power  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  immense  treasure 
from  Mexico  and  Peru  made  it  possible  for  Charles  V  and 
Philip  II  to  carry  on  long  wars,  and  gave  Spain  great  prestige  at 
the  courts  of  Europe.  But  the  wealth  which  appeared  to  be  the 
source  of  Spain's  greatness  was  in  reality  the  cause  of  her  decay. 
The  treasure  from  the  colonies  drew  the  Spaniards  away  from 
sober  industrial  pursuits,  and  encouraged  the  spirit  of  specula- 
tion and  adventure.  Manufactures  and  agriculture  were 
neglected,  and  Spain  became  more  and  more  dependent  upon 
other  countries  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  By  the  year  1560,  only 
about  one  twentieth  of  the  commodities  which  Spain  exported 
to  her  colonies  were  produced  in  the  mother  country. 

The  Rise  of  England  as  a  World  Power.  The  treasure  which 
enfeebled  Spain  was  promoting  England's  industries  and 
commerce.  English  manufacturers  were  producing  a  large  part 
of  the  clothing,  furniture,  and  other  supplies  used  by  the 
Spaniards.  With  the  growth  of  her  industries  and  of  a  powerful 
middle  class  of  artisans  and  merchants,  England's  rising  power 
began  to  threaten  the  supremacy  of  Spain.  King  Henry  VIII 
and  later,  Queen  Elizabeth,  built  up  the  English  navy,  making 
the  vessels  larger  and  stronger,  and  arming  them  with  heavier 
guns.  Enriched  by  the  treasure  won  from  Spain,  England 
developed  a  powerful  fleet  manned  by  the  best  sailors  in  Europe. 

England  had  done  nothing  up  to  this  time  to  follow  up  the 
discoveries  of  the  Cabots,  in  fact  she  had  allowed  their  voyages 
to  become  almost  forgotten.  At  last  the  island  kingdom  began 
to  show  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  New  World.  The  first 
clash  between  Spain  and  England  came  when  the  Spanish  king 
refused  to  allow  any  outsiders  to  trade  with  the  West  Indies. 
Queen  Elizabeth  won  the  enmity  of  Spain  by  permitting  her 
famous  sea  captains  to  harass  the  West  Indies,  where  they 
plundered  the  Spanish  settlements  and  captured  the  treasure 
ships  bound  for  Spain. 


SPANISH  AND   ENGLISH   EXPLORATIONS 


27 


The  Early  English  "  Sea  Dogs."  John  Hawkins  was  the 
first  English  mariner  to  come  into  conflict  with  the  Spaniards 
by  interfering  with  their  monopoly  of  trade  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  planters  and  gold-seekers  of  New  Spain  needed  cheap  labor  ; 
negroes  were  plentiful  in  Africa,  and  Hawkins  did  not  propose 
to  forego  the  profits  on  a  cargo  of  slaves  merely  because  Spain 
claimed  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  her  colonies.  After  two 
profitable  ventures  to  Haiti  in 
his  good  bark,  the  Jesus,  Hawkins 
met  with  disaster  on  the  third 
voyage.  His  little  fleet  of  nine 
ships  was  driven  by  storm  into 
the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz,  where 
the  Spanish  commander  first 
promised  protection,  then  made 
a  treacherous  attack.  Only  two 
of  the  English  ships  escaped,  one 
of  which  was  commanded  by 
Francis  Drake,  a  Devonshire  lad 
of  twenty  years. 

Drake  devoted  his  life  from 
this  time  on  to  privateering,  and 
his  name  became  a  terror  to  the 
Spaniards.  He  made  many  voyages  across  the  Atlantic,  plunder- 
ing the  Spanish  settlements  and  galleons.  When  the  Spaniards 
redoubled  their  vigilance  in  the  West  Indies,  Drake  determined 
to  raid  the  unguarded  settlements  on  the  Pacific  coast.  With 
five  ships  he  sailed  along  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America 
and  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Following  the 
coast  northward,  he  plundered  the  ports  of  Chile  and  Peru, 
and  captured  many  Spanish  vessels.  Drake  lost  all  of  his  ships 
except  the  Pelican,  which  he  renamed  the  Golden  Hind  because 
of  the  immense  booty  of  gold  and  pearls  with  which  it  was 
laden.  He  knew  that  he  could  not  return  home  the  way  he  had 
come,  for  the  Spaniards  were  waiting  for  him  along  the  South 
American  coast  and  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  So  he  sailed 
northward  in  search  of  a  passage  to  the  Atlantic,  finally  reach- 


Sir  Francis  Drake 
From  an  engraving  of  his  time. 


28  DISCOVERY  AND   EXPLORATION 

ing  Oregon,  which  he  called  New  Albion.  Disappointed  at  not 
finding  a  passage  through  the  continent,  Drake  turned  westward 
across  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
in  September,  1580,  his  weather-beaten  and  weed-clogged  ship 
sailed  into  Plymouth  Harbor.  Soon  afterwards  Queen  Elizabeth 
came  to  dinner  on  board  the  Golden  Hind,  and  showed  her 
pleasure  over  Drake's  exploit  by  knighting  him  in  the  presence 
of  his  men. 

Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588.  Drake's  operations 
added  to  the  glory  of  England  and  won  him  the  favor  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  but  they  made  the  Spaniards  more  and  more  hostile. 
Not  only  had  England  become  the  dreaded  enemy  of  Spain  on 
the  sea,  but  she  was  aiding  the  brave  little  nation  of  the  Nether- 
lands in  its  heroic  struggle  against  Spanish  tyranny.  Moreover, 
England  was  the  principal  Protestant  country  of  Europe,  while 
Philip  II  was  the  foremost  ruler  of  a  Catholic  kingdom.  At  a 
time  when  the  Catholic  world  was  enraged  at  Elizabeth  be- 
cause of  her  execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  Philip  determined 
to  invade  and  conquer  England.  In  1588,  there  appeared  in  the 
English  Channel  the  "  Invincible  Armada,"  an  immense  fleet 
of  warships  carrying  an  army  of  thirty  thousand  men.  The 
English  ships  which  met  the  Spanish  fleet  were  smaller  but  much 
swifter ;  they  were  armed  with  heavier  guns  and  manned  by  the 
best  sailors  in  the  world.  Howard,  Drake,  Hawkins,  Frobisher, 
Grenville,  and  other  naval  heroes  were  present  and  joined  in 
the  battle.  Many  of  the  Spanish  vessels  were  sunk,  others  were 
destroyed  by  storm,  and  scarcely  more  than  half  of  the  fleet 
escaped  back  to  Spain.  It  was  a  tremendous  victory  for  the 
power  destined  to  become  the  "  Mistress  of  the  Seas.  "  The 
naval  power  of  Spain  received  a  deadly  blow,  important  in 
American  history  because  from  this  time  on,  England  could 
found  colonies  and  conduct  explorations  without  fear  of  Spain. 

The  First  English  Settlements.  Nearly  twenty  years  before 
the  Great  Armada  was  destroyed,  Queen  Elizabeth  had  shown 
her  interest  in  colonization  by  granting  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gil- 
bert a  patent  for  trade  and  settlement  in  any  lands  not  already 
held  by  a  Christian  prince.    Gilbert  reached  the  harbor  of 


SPANISH   AND   ENGLISH    EXPLORATIONS 


29 


St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  and  took  possession  of  the  island  in  the 
name  of  his  queen.  The  colony  did  not  prosper,  and  the  brave 
Gilbert  lost  his  life  in  a  terrific  storm  on  the  return  voyage.  The 
work  begun  by  Gilbert  was  carried  on  by  his  half-brother,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  an  accomplished  courtier  who  had  won  his  way 
to  the  heart  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Raleigh  sent  to  the  West 
Indies  an  exploring  party 
which  captured  several 
Spanish  ships,  then  sailed 
northward  to  the  shore  of 
what  is  now  North  Carolina. 
The  expedition  brought 
back  such  favorable  reports 
of  the  region  that  Elizabeth, 
in  honor  of  herself  as  a  vir- 
gin queen,  called  the  coun- 
try Virginia. 

Raleigh's  " Lost  Colony." 
The  next  year  Raleigh  sent 
a  number  of  settlers  to  found 
a  colony  on  Roanoke  Island. 
Disheartened  after  a  year 
of  hardships,  they  took  ad- 
vantage of  Sir  Francis 
Drake's  visit  to  the  colony 
to  return  with  him  to  Eng- 
land.    Undaunted  by  this 

failure,  Raleigh  sent  out  another  expedition  of  three  ships  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  colonists,  among  whom  were  a  score  of 
women  and  children.  They  intended  to  settle  in  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  district,  but  on  reaching  Roanoke  Island  the  pilot  refused 
to  continue  the  voyage,  so  a  landing  was  made.  Virginia  Dare 
was  born  here  a  few  days  later,  the  first  English  child  to  be 
born  on  the  soil  of  the  United  States.  Virginia's  grandfather, 
the  leader  of  the  party,  was  obliged  to  return  to  England  for 
supplies,  and  because  of  the  threatened  Spanish  invasion  could 
not  revisit  the  colony  until  four  years  later.     He  found  the 


i 

B 

T/dMM 

•.  •.'...                v       A 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  at  the  Age  of  Thirty 

From  a  de  Medici  print  at  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  after  a  painting  by 
Zuccaro. 


30  DISCOVERY  AND   EXPLORATION 

island  deserted  and  the  fort  in  ruins ;  the  only  clue  to  the 
mystery  was  the  word  "Croatoan"  carved  on  a  tree.  This  was 
the  name  of  a  friendly  tribe  of  Indians  on  an  island  near  by,  so 
it  was  thought  that  the  colonists  might  have  taken  refuge  with 
them.  No  trace  was  ever  found  of  little  Virginia  Dare  or  the 
lost  colony. 

Raleigh  kept  up  his  interest  in  America  even  after  his  im- 
prisonment in  the  Tower  of  London  on  a  false  charge  of  treason. 
He  was  the  true  parent  of  English  colonization  in  America,  and 
spent  over  $200,000  of  his  own  fortune  on  colonizing  expeditions. 
Later,  finding  the  burden  too  heavy  for  one  individual,  he  sold 
his  trading  rights  in  Virginia  to  a  company  of  merchants.  Just 
before  his  imprisonment,  Raleigh  wrote  of  this  country : 
"  I  shall  yet  live  to  see  it  an  English  nation." 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  II— III. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  30-36. 
Bourne,  E.  G.,  Spain  in  America,  chs.  X-XV. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  III-V. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  ch.TV. 
Tyler,  L.  G.,  England  in  America  (American  Nation  Series),  chs.  I— II. 


REFERENCES   FOR  PUPILS 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  1-45. 

Hall,  Jennie,  Our  Ancestors  in  Europe,  pp.  379-388. 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  Pioneer  Spaniards  in  North  America,  pp.  193-253. 

Johnson,  W.  H,  The  World's  Discoverers,  chs.  XXIII- XXVI. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  II. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Conquest  of  Mexico.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Explora- 
tion and  Discovery,  ch.  X  ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  II, 
ch.  VIII  ;  Prescott,  William  H.,  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

2.  De  Soto.  Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History, 
ch.  VII  ;    Great  Epochs  of  American  History,  I,  pp.  147-155  ;    Hig- 


SPANISH   AND   ENGLISH   EXPLORATIONS  31 

ginson,  T.  W.,   Book  of  America?!   Explorers,  ch.  VI  ;    Parkman, 
Francis,  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  7-10. 

3.  Sir  Francis  Drake.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Exploration  and 
Discovery,  chs.  XIII-XIV;  Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American 
History,  ch.  IX  ;  Great  Epochs  of  American  History,  I,  pp.  156-167  ; 
Johnson,  W.  H.,  The  World's  Discoverers,  chs.  XXIII- XXVI. 


Stone  Marking  the  Site  of  Old  Fort 
Raleigh,  the  First  Settlement  of  the 
English  Race  in  America 


CHAPTER   IV 
FRENCH   AND    DUTCH   EXPLORATIONS 

The  Early  French  Fishermen.  While  the  Spanish  adventur- 
ers were  exploring  the  West  Indies  and  the  southern  part  of 
North  America,  French  fishermen  had  found  a  profitable  in- 
dustry off  the  Newfoundland  coast.  The  people  of  Europe 
at  that  time  had  more  than  one  hundred  fast  days  in  the  year, 
and  so  there  was  an  enormous  demand  for  fish.  When  John 
Cabot  reported  that  the  waters  he  had  explored  were  swarming 
with  cod  and  salmon,  the  hardy  fishermen  of  western  Europe 
set  sail  for  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Fishermen  from  the 
ports  of  St.  Malo  and  Dieppe  were  among  the  first  to  reach 
this  region,  probably  about  the  year  1504.  They  built  huts 
along  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  made  immense  hauls  of  cod 
off  the  Grand  Banks,  and  searched  the  northern  waters  for 
seals  and  whales.  These  early  voyages  were  of  slight  geograph- 
ical importance,  but  they  drew  the  attention  of  France  to 
Canada,  and  paved  the  way  for  her  future  explorations. 

France  Enters  on  the  Work  of  Exploration,  1524.  The  king  of 
France  finally  sent  out  a  Florentine  navigator,  Verrazano,  to 
discover  new  lands  and  to  search  for  a  northwest  passage  to 
Asia.  Verrazano  reached  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas,  then  sailed 
northward,  exploring  Chesapeake  Bay,  New  York  harbor, 
and  the  New  England  coast.  Ten  years  later,  Jacques  Cartier, 
a  master  pilot  of  St.  Malo,  sailed  from  France  to  continue 
the  search  for  the  northwest  passage.  Cartier  went  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Quebec,  and 
found  this  region  "  as  fair  as  was  ever  seen."  He  sailed  on  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  until  he  reached  Lachine  Rapids,  the  head  of  navi- 
gation from  the  sea  ;  the  near-by  island  mountain  he  named  Mont 
Royal,  or  Montreal.   Cartier  failed  to  find  a  northwest  passage, 

32 


*M*~*  /^^r'yrT 


FRENCH  AND  DUTCH  EXPLORATIONS 


33 


and  his  settlement  at  Quebec  lasted  little  more  than  a  year; 
but  France  afterwards  based  her  claim  to  the  valley  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  upon  his  voyage. 

Samuel  de  Champlain,  the  Father  of  New  France.  It  was 
reserved  for  one  greater  than  Cartier  to  establish  French  power 
in  the  New  World.  This  was  the  mission  of  Samuel  de  Cham- 
plain,  the  intrepid  explorer  who  well  deserves  his  title,  "  the 
Father  of  New  France."  Champlain  made  his  first  trip  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  in  1603,  follow- 
ing the  route  taken  by  Cartier 
nearly  seventy  years  before. 
Later  he  visited  the  Isle  of  St. 
Croix,  and  helped  to  establish 
at  Port  Royal  the  first  perma- 
nent French  settlement  in 
North  America.  Acadia  was 
the  name  given  to  this  iso- 
lated peninsula  between  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  and  the  At- 
lantic ;  and  with  the  occupa- 
tion of  Acadia,  the  land  im- 
mortalized by  Longfellow,  the 
history  of  New  France  begins. 
This  was  in  the  opening  years 
of  the  seventeenth  century, 
before  the  English  had  come 
to  Jamestown,  and  before 
there  were  any  settlements 
made  by  Spain. 

The  Founding  of  Quebec.  On  his  first  St.  Lawrence  voyage, 
Champlain  saw  with  a  soldier's  eye  that  the  towering  rock  of 
Quebec  was  an  ideal  location  for  a  fortress  to  guard  the  door  of 
a  vast  continent.  Commissioned  as  governor  of  New  France, 
he  sailed  in  1608  to  establish  on  this  lofty  cliff  the  colony  destined 
to  become  the  stronghold  of  French  power  in  America.  It  was  a 
splendid  site  for  a  colony ;  it  commanded  the  Indian  traffic  of 
an  immense  drainage  basin,  and  was  well  located  for  sending  out 


Samuel  de  Champlain 

From  a  painting  by  Th.  Hamel, 
after  the  Moncornet  portrait. 

in  North  America  except  those 


34  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

exploring  parties  into  the  interior.  From  Quebec,  Champlain 
led  several  expeditions  up  the  Saguenay  and  Ottawa  rivers.  He 
also  explored  the  region  around  Lake  Champlain,  and  reached 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron  while  vainly  seeking  a  western  water- 
way through  the  continent.  For  many  years  the  few  settlers  at 
Quebec  endured  untold  hardships  of  cold,  hunger,  and  scurvy. 
The  fortress  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1629,  when  Cham- 
plain had  only  sixteen  soldiers  for  its  defense  ;  but  it  was  restored 
to  France  three  years  later.  Quebec  remained  the  citadel  of 
New  France  for  a  century  and  a  half,  until  the  brave  General 
Wolfe  led  a  British  army  to  the  final  victory  on  the  Plains  of 
Abraham. 

Characteristics  of  French  Colonization.  Great  colonizer  as 
he  was,  Champlain  failed  in  his  efforts  to  make  New  France  an 
agricultural  country.  The  company  that  controlled  the  colony 
developed  the  most  obvious  source  of  wealth,  the  fur  trade,  but 
neglected  the  cultivation  of  a  reluctant  soil.  Fishermen,  trap- 
pers, soldiers,  and  roaming  adventurers  were  not  the  men  to  lay 
the  sure  foundations  of  a  permanent  empire.  Conquest,  explora- 
tion, missionary  zeal,  and  above  all,  the  fur  trade,  were  the 
motives  of  French  colonization  in  America.  These  aims  explain 
the  failure  of  France  in  her  conflict  with  the  sturdy  Englishmen 
who  came  with  their  families  to  find  homes  in  the  western 
wilderness.  Then  too,  the  company  which  had  a.  monopoly 
of  French  trade  in  the  New  World  forbade  the  Huguenots,  or 
French  Protestants,  to  enter  Canada.  Thus  France,  like  Spain, 
shut  out  from  her  New  World  possessions  the  very  class  of  men 
who  would  gladly  have  sought  refuge  with  their  families  from 
the  intolerance  and  persecution  of  the  Old  World. 

Champlain  and  the  Iroquois.  In  spite  of  his  tact,  Champlain 
made  one  of  the  most  serious  mistakes  of  early  colonization. 
To  please  the  Algonquin  Indians  of  the  St.  Lawrence  region,  he 
consented  to  join  one  of  their  frequent  war  parties  against  the 
Iroquois,  a  confederacy  of  Five  Nations  living  in  New  York  and 
northeastern  Pennsylvania.  Near  the  later  site  of  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga,  Champlain  and  his  Indian  allies  easily  routed  the 
Iroquois,  who  were  unacquainted  with  the  white  man's  weapons. 


FRENCH  AND  DUTCH  EXPLORATIONS      35 

In  the  end  it  proved  a  costly  victory,  for  the  Iroquois  never 
forgave  the  French.  In  revenge  for  their  defeat,  Iroquois  war- 
riors made  repeated  attacks  on  the  Hurons,  driving  them  from 
their  homes  to  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Superior ;  and  they 
annihilated  the  Algonquin  tribes  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley. 
Their  war  parties  raided  the  French  settlements,  interrupted 
the  fur  trade,   and  constantly  menaced  Montreal  and  even 


Champlain's  Attack  on  the  Iroquois  Fort 

After  the  original  in  Champlain's  Nouvelle  France. 

Quebec  itself.  Most  important  of  all,  the  Iroquois  tribes  formed 
a  living  barrier  protecting  the  Dutch  and  English  settlers,  who 
supplied  them  with  firearms  and  stirred  them  up  to  bloody  forays 
against  the  common  foe.  Even  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  so 
successful  with  the  Indians  of  the  north,  could  not  soften  these 
fierce  hearts.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  Champlain's  life  was  to 
petition  Cardinal  Richelieu  for  men  and  arms  in  order  that  he 
might  repel  the  merciless  attacks  of  the  Iroquois. 


36 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 


The  Discovery  of  Lake  Michigan.  Himself  the  boldest  of 
explorers,  Champlain  was  anxious  to  learn  as  much  as  pos- 
sible about  the  inhabitants  and  country  of  New  France.  He 
decided  to  train  some  of  his  young  men  in  the  language  of 
the  Canadian  Indians,  and  have  them  learn  Indian  life  at  first 
hand  by  living  among  the  different  tribes.  One  Jean  Nicolet, 
who  had  lived  sixteen  years  with  the  Indians,  was  sent  by 
Champlain  to  investigate  the  report  of  a  large  body  of  water 
toward  the  west.  Nicolet  penetrated  to  Lake  Michigan  and 
followed  its  western  shore  as  far  as  Green  Bay,  but  failed  to 
reach  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  Jesuits  in  Canada.  Jesuit  priests,  members  of  the 
ancient  and  powerful  Order  of  Jesus,  came  to  the  aid  of 
soldier-explorers  like  Champlain.  The  aim  of  the  French  Jesuits 
was  to  convert  the  whole  native  population  to  Christianity, 

a  heroic  task  which  these 
black-robed  priests  took  up 
with  the  zeal  of  the  Cru- 
sader. The  Jesuits  led  the 
van  of  French  colonization 
in  Canada ;  but  when  suc- 
cess seemed  almost  won, 
their  missions  and  Indian 
converts  were  swept  aside 
by  the  Iroquois  avalanche. 

Discovery  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  1673.  The 
most  famous  of  these  early 
priests  and  explorers  was 
Father  Marquette,  who  lived 
in  a  Jesuit  mission  on  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac.  Mar- 
quette determined  to  search 
for  the  Mississippi  River,  of  which  he  had  heard  a  vague  ac- 
count from  his  Indian  converts.  In  company  with  Louis  Joliet, 
Marquette  passed  from  Lake  Michigan  into  the  Fox  River, 
then  by  a  portage  to  the  Wisconsin.    The  explorers  paddled 


The  Statue  of  Marquette  at  Marquette, 
Michigan 


FRENCH  AND  DUTCH  EXPLORATIONS      37 

their  canoes  down  this  river  to  the  Mississippi,  following  its 
course  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  Fearing  capture  by  the 
Spaniards  if  they  went  on  to  the  Gulf  region,  they  retraced 
their  course.  Marquette  had  discovered  the  important  fact 
that  the  Mississippi  did  not  empty  into  the  South  Sea,  as 
had  been  supposed,  and  hence  did  not  form  a  highway  across 
the  continent. 

La  Salle  Claims  Louisiana  for  France,  1682.  At  Champlain's 
death  in  1635,  France  could  claim  from  his  explorations  and 
those  of  his  followers  the  country  as  far  west  as  Wisconsin.  It 
remained  for  the  greatest  of  French  pathfinders,  La  Salle,  to 
add  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  New  France.  Inspired  by  Mar- 
quette's voyage  down  the  Mississippi,  La  Salle  decided  to  visit 
the  wilderness  through  which  the  "  Father  of  Waters  "  ran  its 
course.  He  had  a  vision  of  a  chain  of  forts  and  trading  stations 
along  all  the  inland  waterways  from  Quebec  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  forming  a  mighty  bulwark  for  the  empire  of  New 
France.  La  Salle  discovered  the  Ohio  River  in  1670;  and 
twelve  years  later,  after  many  mishaps,  the  intrepid  explorer 
found  his  way  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  He  had  reached 
that  river  by  way  of  Lake  Michigan,  the  Chicago  portage,  and 
the  Illinois  River.  La  Salle  took  formal  possession  of  all  the 
vast  basin  drained  by  the  Mississippi,  naming  the  country 
Louisiana  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV,  king  of  France. 

On  returning  to  Quebec,  La  Salle  learned  that  he  had  been 
deprived  of  his  command,  so  he  went  to  France  to  lay  his  case 
before  the  king.  Louis  XIV  listened  with  delight  to  the  story 
of  his  explorations.  By  way  of  reward,  the  king  authorized  him 
to  plant  colonies  in  Louisiana,  and  made  him  governor  of  the 
entire  region  between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
La  Salle  then  set  sail  for  Louisiana,  intending  to  enter  the 
Mississippi  by  way  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  His  pilots  missed 
their  way,  and  one  of  the  ships  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards, 
while  the  others  took  refuge  in  Matagorda  Bay,  far  to  the  west 
of  their  destination.  In  desperate  plight,  La  Salle  finally  set  out 
on  horses  obtained  from  the  natives,  hoping  to  reach  Canada 
overland  and  secure  reinforcements.  But  the  end  of  his  explora- 


38 


DISCOVERY  AND   EXPLORATION 


French  and  Dutch  Explorations 

The  Indian  settlements  at  Tadousac  and  Hochelaga  (Montreal)  which  Car- 
tier  found  on  his  first  voyage  had  disappeared  before  Champlain's  expedition, 
1603.  The  palace  and  fort  built  by  Cartier  at  Charlesbourg  were  located  at 
Cap  Rouge,  nine  miles  above  Stadacona,  which  became  Quebec,  1608. 

The  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal  were  named  Lachine 
(La  Chine,  the  French  for  "China")  because  the  explorers  thought  the  north- 
west passage  had  been  found. 


tions  was  at  hand,  for  on  reaching  the  bank  of  Trinity  River,  the 
great  pathfinder  was  shot  from  ambush  by  one  of  his  own 
mutinous  followers. 

The  French  Empire  in  North  America.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  a  greater  New  France  was  held  together 
by  a  chain  of  forts  and  trading  stations  extending  along  the  Great 
Lakes  and  down  the  Mississippi  River.  On  the  Great  Lakes  the 


FRENCH  AND  DUTCH  EXPLORATIONS      39 

most  important  post  was  Detroit,  controlling  Lake  Erie  and  the 
tributaries  to  the  Ohio  River.  New  Orleans  was  founded  in 
1718  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  soon  became  an 
important  center  of  trade.  France  held  secure  possession  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  Valley,  forming  with  the  Great  Lakes  a  natural 
highway  through  the  heart  of  the  continent ;  and  she  claimed 
dominion  over  the  entire  Mississippi  Basin.  The  French  pos- 
sessions in  North  America,  to  which  the  general  name  of  New 
France  is  given,  comprised  three  geographical  divisions  : 

(1)  Acadia,  including  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  a 
part  of  Maine,  with  its  principal  colony  at  Port  Royal. 

(2)  New  France  proper,  the  river  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  country  surrounding  the  Great  Lakes.  Its  central 
settlement  was  Quebec. 

(3)  Louisiana,  the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
with  its  entrance  guarded  by  the  fort  at  New  Orleans. 

The  Dutch  in  Search  of  a  Northwest  Passage.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Holland  was  a  sturdy 
little  nation  which  had  won  its  independence  from  Spain,  and 
was  becoming  one  of  the  chief  trading  nations  of  Europe.  Dutch 
ships  and  sailors  were  found  on  every  sea,  although  their  chief 
trading  center  was  the  East  Indies.  A  large  trading  company, 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  was  attempting  to  find  a  new 
route  to  the  East  either  by  sailing  around  the  north  of  Europe, 
or  by  means  of  a  northwest  passage  through  the  American 
continent.  With  this  object  in  view,  the  company  engaged  the 
services  of  an  Englishman,  Henry  Hudson. 

In  his  famous  ship,  the  Half  Moon,  Hudson  visited  the 
coast  of  Maine,  sailed  south  as  far  as  Virginia,  then  northward 
again,  exploring  Delaware  Bay,  and  at  last  cast  anchor  inside  of 
Sandy  Hook  (1609).  After  carefully  exploring  the  Narrows, 
Hudson  navigated  his  ship  into  the  upper  bay,  then  into  the 
mouth  of  the  river  that  bears  his  name.  He  sailed  northward 
for  eleven  days,  delighted  with  the  wonderful  scenery  of  the 
Hudson,  and  hoping  that  he  had  found  a  passage  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  But  the  Half  Moon  could  not  proceed  above  the  site 
of  modern  Albany ;  and  a  boat  party  which  went  eight  leagues 


40  DISCOVERY    AND    EXPLORATION 

farther  up  the  river  reported  that  no  open  sea  lay  beyond.  Be- 
fore starting  on  his  return  voyage,  Hudson  invited  a  party  of 
Indians  on  board  the  Half  Moon,  and  "  gave  them  much  wine 
and  aqua-vitw,  that  they  were  all  merrie.  In  the  ende  one  of 
them  was  drunke.  "  This  celebration  marked  the  beginning 
of  friendly  relations  between  the  Iroquois  and  the  Dutch  in 
the  very  year  that  Champlain  and  the  French  incurred  their 
lasting  enmity. 

The  Dutch  Colony  of  New  Netherland.  When  Hudson 
reported  to  his  employers  the  abundance  of  fur-bearing  animals 
in  the  region  he  had  explored,  they  decided  that  it  would  be  a 
good  place  for  trading  posts  and  settlements.  So  a  trading 
company  known  as  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  was 
formed  to  take  control  of  the  territory  on  the  Hudson  River. 
The  first  settlers  came  to  Manhattan  Island  in  1623,  and  a  few 
years  later  Peter  Minuit  bought  the  entire  island  from  the 
Indians  for  cloth  and  trinkets  worth  about  twenty-four  dollars. 
Fort  Amsterdam  was  built  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
island,  and  became  the  home  of  the  despotic  governors  who 
ruled  New  Netherland.  Some  of  the  settlers  went  to  Fort 
Orange  near  the  present  city  of  Albany,  while  others  spread 
southward  to  Delaware  and  Connecticut.  New  Netherland  did 
not  prosper  as  a  colony.  The  Dutch  West  India  Company 
was  interested  only  in  the  fur  trade,  and  would  not  spend 
the  money  necessary  to  develop  its  colony.  Moreover,  the 
Dutch  had  settled  on  land  that  had  been  granted  to  the  Lon- 
don and  Plymouth  companies  by  James  I ;  and  within  half  a 
century,  New  Netherland  was  destined  to  pass  under  English 
rule. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  72-76. 
Becker,  G.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  36-40. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  IV. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  ch.  V. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.,  France  in  America  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 
I-V. 


FRENCH   AND    DUTCH    EXPLORATIONS  41 

REFERENCES  FOR   PUPILS 

Baldwin,  James,  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest. 
Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  85-123. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Patriots  and  Statesmen,  I,  pp.  126-130. 
Johnson,  W.  H.,  French  Pathfinders  in  North  America,  chs.  IV,  VIII- 
XIV,  XXX-XXXII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR   PUPILS 

1.  Champlain.  Archer,  A.  B.,  Stories  of  Exploration  and  Dis- 
covery, ch.  XVIII  ;  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F.,  Story  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  ch.  II  ;  Higginson,  T.  W.,  Book  of  American  Explorers, 
ch.  XII  ;  Parkman,  Francis,  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  83-124  ; 
Sedfwick,  H.  D.,  Samuel  de  Champlain  (Riverside  Biographical 
Series). 

2.  The  Jesuits  in  America.  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F., 
Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  ch.  Ill  ;  Parkman,  Francis,  Struggle  for  a 
Continent,  pp.  130-135,  149-156. 

3.  La  Salle.  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F.,  Story  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  ch.  VI  ;  Fiske,  John,  Discovery  of  America,  II,  pp.  532-537  ; 
Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  XIX  ;  Great 
Epochs  of  American  History,  I,  pp.  199-206  ;  Parkman,  Francis, 
Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  186-222. 


CHAPTER  V 
EARLY   AMERICA  — THE   LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE 

The  Climate  of  North  America.  The  early  discoverers  and 
explorers  learned  that  the  continent  of  North  America  was  in 
general  outline  a  huge  triangle,  with  its  base  in  the  arctic  region, 
and  its  apex  in  the  tropics.  This  meant  that  the  larger  part  of 
its  area  lay  in  higher  latitudes,  ruled  by  a  somewhat  severe 
climate.  The  first  colonists  naturally  supposed  that  the  climate 
of  North  America  would  be  like  that  part  of  Europe  lying  in  the 
same  latitude.  They  could  not  know  that  the  Gulf  Stream 
carries  the  heat  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  away  from  North  America 
to  warm  the  shores  of  western  Europe.  Since  the  Massachusetts 
colonists  were  in  the  same  latitude  as  southern  France,  they  were 
surprised  to  find  a  winter  climate  much  like  that  of  Norway  and 
Sweden.  These  cold  winters  cost  the  early  settlers  intense 
suffering  and  many  lives.  In  the  long  run,  this  rather  severe 
climate  was  an  advantage ;  the  people  of  New  England  proved 
no  exception  to  the  rule  that  colder  climates  are  more  likely 
to  develop  a  hardy  and  vigorous  race. 

Area  and  Waterways.  The  vast  extent  of  the  new  continent 
was  another  matter  of  surprise.  The  early  explorers  expected  to 
find  a  land  of  about  the  same  size  as  Europe ;  whereas  North 
America  with  its  8,500,000  square  miles  of  area  was  more  than 
twice  as  large  as  the  continent  from  which  they  came.  This  mis- 
taken notion  led  to  the  exploration  of  rivers  like  the  James,  the 
Hudson,  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage 
to  Cathay.  But  although  no  waterway  was  found  across  the 
continent,  there  was  a  splendid  network  of  rivers  leading  far 
into  the  interior.  Trappers  and  fur  traders  paddled  their  birch- 
bark  canoes  up  the  courses  of  these  rivers,  leading  the  van  of 
colonization    and    settlement.      Trading    posts    were    usually 

42 


EARLY   AMERICA  — THE    LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE      43 

established  at  the  head  of  navigation,  as  at  Hartford  on  the 
Connecticut,  Albany  on  the  Hudson,  and  Richmond  on  the 
James.  From  these  centers,  individual  traders  pushed  still 
farther  west,  bartering  with  the  Indians  for  furs.  In  this  way 
the  traders  became  the  pioneers  in  the  westward  movement. 
They  explored  the  unknown  regions,  discovered  the  best  means 
of  reaching  the  interior,  and  told  their  countrymen  what  lands 
were  best  suited  to  settlement. 

Forests  and  Animal  Life.  The  first  European  settlers  found 
an  almost  unbroken  sheet  of  forest  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  extending  westward  to  the  Mississippi.  The  dense  forest 
was  both  a  hardship  and  a  blessing.  Clearing  the  land  in  order 
to  plant  crops  meant  the  hardest  kind  of  toil ;  at  the  same 
time,  it  meant  a  bountiful  supply  of  fuel  and  building  material. 
Masts  for  all  the  shipbuilding  countries  in  Europe  were  soon 
being  cut  from  the  splendid  forests  of  the  new  continent ;  while 
the  New  England  settlers  built  ships  both  for  their  own  use, 
and  for  sale  in  Europe  and  in  the  treeless  West  Indies.  Then  too, 
the  struggle  for  existence  was  made  easier  by  the  abundance  of 
forest  game,  such  as  deer,  elk,  wild  geese,  and  turkeys.  To  the 
early  settlers  as  to  the  Indians,  the  deer  was  a  staple  source 
of  food  and  clothing ;  and  the  beaver,  otter,  sable,  and  other 
fur-bearing  animals  yielded  rich  returns  to  the  hunter  and 
trapper.  Another  animal  found  in  large  numbers  was  the 
buffalo,  which  roamed  in  immense  herds  over  the  region  between 
the  Alleghenies  and  the  Mississippi.  The  waters  of  the  North 
Atlantic  teemed  with  codfish,  mackerel,  and  herring;  hence 
fishing  soon  became  one  of  New  England's  chief  industries. 

The  Appalachian  Barrier  and  Its  Effects.  When  the  first 
English  settlers  came  to  America,  they  found  the  Spaniards 
holding  the  islands  and  seas  of  the  south,  while  the  French 
claimed  the  St.  Lawrence  region ;  so  that  the  English  could 
occupy  only  the  narrow  strip  of  lowland  between  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  It  was  really  a  matter 
of  good  fortune  that  they  were  long  confined  to  this  narrow 
strip  of  territory.  With  a  mountain  barrier  on  the  west,  and 
with  hostile  powers  at  the  north  and  south,  the  English  colonies 


44 


DISCOVERY   AND    EXPLORATION 


became  of  necessity  more  compactly  settled.  Their  people 
tilled  the  soil,  built  schools  and  churches,  developed  repre- 
sentative governments,  and  established  permanent  homes. 
All  this  was  in  sharp  contrast  with  New  France,  where  a  few 
settlers  were  scattered  over  a  vast  area,  too  large  to  be  suc- 
cessfully defended. 

The  Routes  across  the  Barrier.     More  than  a  century  passed 
after  the  first   settlement   at  Jamestown  before  the   English 


Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washington. 

Navajo  Blanket  Weaving 

colonists  began  to  push  westward  through  the  passes  of  the 
Appalachian  barrier.  At  the  north,  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson 
and  the  Mohawk  formed  a  natural  highway  through  this 
mountain  wall ;  but  this  route  was  closed  to  the  early  settlers 
by  the  Iroquois  Indians.  A  second  route  was  through  southern 
Pennsylvania  to  the  Monongahela,  and  along  its  course  to  the 
Ohio  River ;  while  a  third  route  was  by  way  of  the  Appalachian 
Valley  to  the  southwest,  and    out  through  the  Cumberland 


EARLY   AMERICA  — THE    LAND   AND   THE    PEOPLE      45 

Gap  or  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  into  the  open  country 
beyond. 

This  southern  route  was  much  used  at  first,  but  when  better 
roads  were  built,  the  route  through  Pennsylvania  became 
the  great  highway.  Soon  the  city  of  Pittsburgh,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Alleghen}^  and  Monongahela  rivers,  became  the  gateway 
of  the  West.  On  reaching  the  Ohio,  the  settlers  could  make  the 
rest  of  their  journey  by  water,  following  this  river  or  its  branches 
to  their  new  homes.  The  beginning  of  the  American  Revolution 
found  a  host  of  pioneers  crossing  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
into  the  Mississippi  Valley.  These  frontiersmen  found  before 
them  the  vast  interior  plains  of  the  continent,  stretching  west- 
ward for  thousands  of  miles.  There  was  no  other  barrier  to 
westward  expansion  except  the  lofty  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
farther  toward  the  Pacific,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Ranges. 

The  Natives  of  North  America.  When  Columbus  discovered 
the  Bahama  Islands,  he  also  discovered  a  race  of  men  unknown 
to  the  world  before  his  time.  Later  explorers  found  the  Indians, 
as  Columbus  named  the  natives,  inhabiting  the  continent  and 
islands  of  both  North  and  South  America.  The  Indians  were 
usually  tall  in  stature ;  they  had  high  cheek  bones,  small,  deep- 
set  eyes,  and  long  black  hair ;  their  skin  was  brown  or  copper 
colored,  so  that  they  are  sometimes  incorrectly  called  "  Red 
Men."  They  did  not  lead  a  nomadic  life,  but  occupied  fairly 
definite  areas ;  such  migrations  as  occurred  were  usually  due  to 
the  pressure  of  stronger  tribes,  or  to  the  desire  to  find  better 
hunting  grounds.  When  Columbus  first  landed,  about  five 
hundred  thousand  Indians  were  living  on  the  North  American 
continent,  one  half  of  whom  dwelt  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Origin  of  the  Indian  Race.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  explain  how  a  race  separate  and  distinct  from  any  other  in 
the  world  came  to  be  found  in  America.  Because  extensive 
mounds  and  earthworks  were  found  in  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  river  valleys,  it  was  once  thought  that  an  earlier  people 
called  the  u  Mound  Builders  "  used  to  inhabit  the  continent. 
These  mounds  were  sometimes  raised  embankments,  sometimes 
square  or  circular  inclosures,  and  sometimes  earthworks  made 


46 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 


to  resemble  an  animal  that  was  held  in  special  veneration.  We 
know  to-day  that  the  Mound  Builders  were  not  a  distinct  race 
of  people,  but  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Indians  themselves. 
At  some  very  early  period,  North  America  was  probably  peopled 
from  Asia,  with  which  our  continent  was  once  connected.  So 
our  Indians  may  be  descended  from  men  whose  earlier  home 
was  in  Asia. 

Semi-civilized  Indian  Peoples.     In  the  days  of  Columbus,  the 
Indians  who  had  made  most  progress  toward  civilization  were 


3 


Hopi  Indian  Village  or  Community  House 

Built  on  the  cliff  above  the  Grand  Canon,  Arizona.     Note  the  blankets  being 
woven  on  the  long  frames. 

the  Incas  in  Peru,  the  Aztecs  in  Mexico,  and  the  Pueblo  Indians 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Both  the  Incas  and  the  Aztecs 
built  stone  houses,  using  tools  of  stone ;  they  mined  gold  and 
silver,  and  worked  these  metals  over  into  beautiful  ornaments. 
Great  skill  was  also  shown  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  and  in 
the  carving  of  wood,  stone,  and  shells.  The  Incas  carried  on 
irrigation,  and  like  the  natives  of  Mexico,  had  a  well-organized 
system  of  government.  At  the  time  of  Pizarro's  conquest,  their 
empire  extended  over  Bolivia  and  Ecuador,  as  well  as  Peru. 
The  Pueblo  Indians  lived  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 


EARLY   AMERICA  — THE    LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE      47 

United  States,  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  and  southern  Cal- 
ifornia. The  Spanish  word  pueblo  means  town,  and  this  name 
was  given  to  the  natives  because  they  lived  in  small  towns  or 
villages.  Their  houses  were  often  several  stories  in  height,  and 
were  built  of  adobe,  or  of  stone  laid  in  clay  mortar.  Some  of  the 
pueblos  were  located  in  the  plains,  while  others  were  placed  on 
lofty  heights  which  could  be  reached  only  by  steep  and  difficult 
trails.  Of  this  latter  class  were  the  pueblos  in  the  Colorado 
region,  where  the  cliff  dwellers  built  their  homes  on  the  steep 
sides  of  the  canons. 

The  Indians  of  Northeastern  America.  There  were  three 
great  families  of  Indians  in  the  region  between  the  Mississippi 
River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  First,  the  Algonquin  family, 
which  occupied  most  of  the  country  north  of  Kentucky,  in- 
cluding all  of  New  England  and  a  large  part  of  Canada.  Second, 
the  Iroquois,  who  lived  south  and  east  of  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario, 
in  the  present  states  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  northern 
Ohio.  Third,  the  Southern  or  Muskogee  Indians,  between  the 
Tennessee  River  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Each  of  these  large  groups  or  families  of  Indians  spoke  a 
common  language ;  each  family  included  numerous  tribes,  and 
the  tribes  were  in  turn  divided  into  separate  clans.  The  basis  of 
clan  unity  was  kinship,  or  descent  from  the  same  female  an- 
cestor. Each  clan  had  its  totem,  usually  some  animal  by  whose 
name  it  was  known,  as  Wolf,  Bear,  Fox,  or  Turtle.  Some  clans 
believed  that  they  were  descended  from  this  totem,  which  thus 
became  an  object  of  worship.  The  clan  had  two  kinds  of  leaders, 
a  peace  ruler  or  sachem  elected  by  its  members,  and  war  chiefs 
who  were  chosen  because  of  their  individual  prowess.  There 
was  also  a  council  which  included  all  the  adult  members  of  the 
clan,  both  men  and  women.  In  the  same  way,  the  tribe  was 
governed  by  a  tribal  council,  composed  of  all  the  sachems  and 
chiefs  within  the  clan ;  while  some  tribes  had  a  head  chief, 
usually  one  of  the  sachems  who  had  shown  special  gifts  of  leader- 
ship. 

Food  and  Clothing.  Where  game  was  abundant,  as  in 
Canada  and  west  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Indians  depended 


EARLY   AMERICA  —  THE    LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE     49 

chiefly  on  hunting  and  fishing.  Next  to  fighting,  the  Indian 
loved  the  chase,  and  he  was  the  most  expert  of  hunters.  Wild 
ducks  and  geese  were  shot  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  or  decoyed 
into  a  net.  The  Indian  could  imitate  the  gobble  of  the  turkey, 
or  the  whistle  of  birds,  and  he  came  upon  his  prey  so  stealthily 
as  not  to  be  noticed.  Venison  was  sometimes  procured  by  a 
skillful  maneuver  called  deer  stalking.  The  Indian  put  on  the 
head  and  antlers  of  a  deer,  and  in  this  disguise  was  able  to  steal 
up  close  to  his  prey.  Besides  fish  and  game  from  the  forests, 
the  Indians  lived  on  wild  fruits,  nuts,  acorns,  and  edible  roots. 
Throughout  New  England  and  the  South,  more  attention  was 
paid  to  agriculture.  Maize  or  Indian  corn  was  the  chief  crop, 
but  there  were  also  fields  of  beans,  pumpkins,  squashes,  water- 
melons, and  tomatoes.  Domestic  animals  were  lacking ;  there 
were  no  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  chickens,  or  even  dogs  and 
cats,  until  after  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans. 

The  skins  of  wild  animals  furnished  the  Indian  with  such 
clothing  as  he  needed.  By  way  of  ornament  he  wore  wampum, 
or  strings  of  beads  made  from  shells  ;  and  sometimes  he  adorned 
his  head  with  the  glossy  feathers  of  the  eagle,  one  feather  for 
each  enemy  killed  in  combat.  He  often  painted  his  face  and  body 
by  means  of  colored  earths,  either  black,  red,  green,  or  white, 
both  the  color  of  the  paint  and  the  character  of  the  markings 
having  a  special  meaning. 

Indian  Houses.  The  houses  of  the  natives  varied  with  the 
location  and  the  season.  In  the  woodland,  they  built  tent- 
shaped  lodges  of  sapling.  On  the  western  plains,  earth  lodges 
were  constructed  for  winter,  while  the  summer  residence  was  a 
tepee  covered  with  buffalo  skins,  so  light  that  it  could  be  easily 
carried  about  in  the  quest  for  game.  A  better  type  of  Indian 
dwelling  was  the  long  house  of  the  Iroquois,  intended  to 
accommodate  several  families.  These  houses  were  built  of  a 
framework  of  upright  poles  set  in  the  ground,  and  covered  in 
with  bark  shingles.  The  interior  was  divided  into  compartments, 
six  or  eight  feet  square,  placed  on  each  side  of  the  house  and 
opening  into  a  common  passageway  down  the  center. 

These  long  houses  were  inhabited  by  Indians  who  belonged  to 


50 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 


the  same  clan.  Each  was  presided  over  by  a  matron  whose 
authority  was  absolute  in  household  matters,  for  among  all 
the  Indian  tribes  there  was  a  strict  division  of  labor  between 
the  men  and  the  women.  The  squaws  cared  for  the  lodge, 
prepared  the  food,  made  the  clothing  and  household  utensils ; 
while  the   men   devoted   themselves  to   hunting   and   fishing, 

and  to  the  manufacture 
of  weapons.  The  Indian 
houses  were  usually  grouped 
together  in  small  villages, 
which  were  often  entirely 
surrounded  by  a  stockade 
of  posts  as  a  defense  against 
sudden  attack. 

Indian  Warfare.  Every 
Indian  boy  was  trained  to 
become  a  warrior,  for  there 
was  almost  constant  fight- 
ing among  the  different 
tribes.  The  child's  toys 
were  miniature  weapons, 
and  the  Indian  youth  soon 
became  skilled  in  the  use  of 
bow  and  arrow,  and  in  the 
hurling  of  the  short  spear 
or  javelin.  The  hatchet  or 
tomahawk  was  another  fa- 
vorite weapon,  being  es- 
pecially useful  in  the  hand- 
to-hand  fighting  of  forest 
warfare.  Among  all  the  tribes,  the  military  virtues  of  bravery, 
strength,  and  skill  were  held  in  the  highest  esteem ;  to  die  in 
battle  was  glorious,  while  the  warrior  who  showed  fear  was  the 
object  of  universal  contempt.  Among  many  tribes,  the  warrior's 
reputation  rested  upon  the  number  of  deeds  of  special  prowess 
which  stood  to  his  credit.  The  acts  which  entitled  him  to  dis- 
tinction were  killing  and  scalping  an  enemy,  being  the  first  to 


A  Pueblo  Indian  of  the  Santa  Clara 
Reservation  Entering  a  Kiva  or  Sanc- 
tuary Carved  Out  of  the  Solid  Rock 

Although  Christianized  over  300  years, 
the  Pueblos  still  perform  their  ancient 
rites  in  these  underground  chambers. 


EARLY   AMERICA  — THE    LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE      51 

touch  an  enemy  in  combat,  rescuing   a   wounded  companion, 
and  stealing  a  horse  from  the  enemy's  camp. 

It  was  a  simple  matter  to  inaugurate  an  Indian  campaign. 
Usually  some  chief  of  proven  valor  would  announce  his  intention 
of  conducting  a  raid,  and  call  for  volunteers  to  accompany  him. 
Among  the  better-organized  tribes  or  confederacies,  extensive 
campaigns  were  decided  upon  by  the  tribal  or  confederate 
council.  Sometimes  war  would  be  declared  with  considerable 
formality,  and  notice  sent  to  the  enemy  by  means  of  wampum 
belts.  Before  leaving  on  the  warpath,  the  warriors  would  engage 


Algonquin  Stock,  Cheyenne  Tribe 

Chief  Stump  Horn  and  family,  showing  travois  or  primitive  vehicle  used  by 

many  tribes. 

in  a  dance  to  arouse  enthusiasm ;  and  upon  returning  from  a 
successful  raid,  a  grand  scalp  dance  was  held,  the  women 
singing  the  praise  of  the  warriors  as  they  flourished  the  scalps 
about. 

The  Indians  usually  aimed  to  surprise  their  foe;  they  often 
made  their  attacks  in  the  dead  of  night,  for  to  take  one's  enemy 
at  a  disadvantage  was  regarded  as  the  most  skillful  kind  of  cam- 
paigning. Their  warfare  was  cruel  almost  beyond  belief ;  the 
warrior  scalped  his  dead  foe,  and  wore  the  scalp  as  a  trophy  and 
proof  of  his  prowess ;  the  more  scalps  he  could  show  at  his  belt, 
the  greater  his  skill  as  a  warrior.  Captives  were  tortured  with 
every  cruelty  that  human  ingenuity  could  devise  in  the  hope  that 


52  DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION 

they  would  display  some  sign  of  fear.  In  the  end  they  were 
usually  killed  with  the  tomahawk  or  burned  at  the  stake, 
although  sometimes  prisoners  were  enslaved,  or  adopted  as 
members  of  the  tribe. 

Indian  Religion.  As  in  the  case  of  most  primitive  peoples, 
eL  the  Indian  worshiped  the  world  of  nature  about  him.  He 
thought  that  the  earth,  the  sky,  and  the  waters  were  peopled 
with  mysterious  spirits,  or  manitous.  These  spirits  were 
both  good  and  evil ;  they  controlled  his  destiny,  so  he  offered 
prayers  and  sacrifices  to  them.  When  a  man  became  ill,  some 
bad  spirit  was  troubling  him;  hence  the  "  medicine  man  "  was 
held  in  special  veneration,  because  he  alone  knew  what  charms 
would  drive  out  the  unruly  spirit.  These  Indian  healers  had 
some  rude  knowledge  of  medicinal  herbs  and  other  simple 
remedies ;  if  the  patient  died  in  spite  of  herbs  and  charms,  they 
explained  that  it  was  because  the  evil  spirit  was  stronger  than 
the  spirit  which  aided  the  medicine  man. 

There  was  always  one  manitou  more  powerful  than  the  rest, 
who  was  the  special  benefactor  and  hero  of  each  tribe.  His 
exploits  and  adventures  formed  a  circle  of  myths,  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation,  like  the  legends  of  King  Arthur 
in  early  British  history.  The  Indians  did  not  have  any  clear 
conception  of  the  one  Supreme  Being,  but  they  did  believe  in  the 
existence  of  a  future  life.  The  warrior's  bow,  his  arrows,  and  his 
dog  were  carefully  buried  with  him,  for  the  Indian  heaven  was 
a  happy  hunting  ground.  Religious  ceremonials  were  often 
elaborate  affairs,  which  included  dancing  and  the  chanting  of 
weird  music,  feasting  and  fasting,  together  with  such  tests  of 
physical  endurance  as  the  sun  dance. 

Indian  Intellect  and  Character.  Although  a  simple  and 
unpractical  race,  the  Indian  was  by  no  means  lacking  in  intellect. 
He  used  a  language  of  his  own,  filled  with  glowing  phrases  and 
figures  of  speech;  and  in  simple,  unstudied  eloquence,  he 
sometimes  equalled  the  greatest  orators  of  any  race.  The 
Indians  of  the  plains  used  a  series  of  gestures  which  formed  an 
intelligible  sign  language.  The  more  advanced  tribes  were 
able  to  express  their  ideas  by  means  of  pictures,  sometimes 


Photograph  by  H.  T.  Cowling,  National  Part  Booklet,  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Blackfeet  Indian  Camp  on  Two  Medicine  Lake 
Glacier  National  Park  was  once  their  hunting  grounds. 


53 


54  DISCOVERY  AND   EXPLORATION 

painted  on  skins,  sometimes  carved  on  the  rocks,  or  woven  in 
wampum.  The  Indian  was  quick  to  learn  the  use  of  firearms, 
and  became  an  expert  marksman.  He  had  a  remarkable  genius 
for  military  tactics  and  strategy ;  he  was  brave  in  battle,  but  he 
stalked  his  enemy  like  wild  game,  and  never  fought  in  the  open 
if  he  could  attack  from  ambush.  A  cruel  and  vindictive  foe,  the 
Indian  was  also  a  generous  and  hospitable  friend.  He  had  a 
rude  sense  of  honor,  and  usually  kept  faith  when  fairly  dealt 
with.  As  a  scout,  he  was  loyal  to  a  trust  in  the  face  of  hardship 
or  death  itself.  Washington  was  guided  through  the  wilderness 
to  Fort  Duquesne  by  a  nameless  Indian;  while  Braddock's 
army  was  routed  because  he  would  not  listen  to  the  advice  of 
his  native  scouts. 

The  Indians  and  the  White  Settlers.  The  white  men  who  first 
came  in  contact  with  the  Indians  were  treated  with  the  utmost 
reverence.  But  when  the  natives  learned  that  they  could  expect 
only  harsh  treatment  in  return,  they  became  the  foes  of  the 
settlers.  The  lands  occupied  by  the  different  tribes  were  owned 
as  common  property,  and  the  chiefs  readily  gave  up  the  tribal 
hunting  grounds  in  exchange  for  a  few  trinkets.  They  thought 
that  the  colonists  would  occupy  the  land  for  a  short  time,  after 
which  it  would  be  given  back  to  them.  When  it  was  seen  that 
the  hunting  grounds  were  being  permanently  held,  the  inevitable 
struggle  began.  In  this  conflict,  the  white  men  won  because  they 
were  the  stronger  race,  and  because  the  different  tribes  were 
constantly  fighting  among  themselves.  But  in  many  cases, 
friendly  Indians  saved  the  settlements  from  attack,  and  brought 
supplies  of  corn  to  the  starving  settlers. 

The  natives  obtained  from  the  colonists  many  new  things, 
such  as  horses  and  dogs,  cloth,  blankets,  liquor,  and  firearms. 
Horses  were  especially  valuable  to  tribes  like  the  Sioux,  which 
lived  by  hunting  the  buffalo ;  and  the  Indians  became  the  most 
expert  riders  in  the  world.  But  contact  with  the  white  man's 
civilization  was  fatal  to  the  children  of  the  forest ;  new  diseases, 
such  as  tuberculosis,  swept  them  away  by  thousands,  while 
liquor  proved  an  even  more  deadly  scourge.  From  the  Indians, 
the  colonists  first  learned  of  maize,  the  potato,  the  use  of 


EARLY   AMERICA  — THE    LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE      55 

tobacco,  and  the  art  of  making  sugar  from  the  sap  of  the  hard 
maple.  It  was  the  native  red  man  who  taught  the  newcomers 
the  habits  of  birds  and  wild  animals,  the  portage  paths  through 
the  wilderness,  and  the  best  methods  of  hunting.  Wampum, 
which  the  natives  used  as  money,  also  served  the  first  settlers 
as  a  medium  of  exchange  ;  while  the  Indian's  buckskin  clothing, 
his  moccasins,  snowshoes,  and  bark  canoes  have  been  used  by 
hunters,  explorers,  and  frontiersmen  down  to  the  present  day. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  2-16. 
Brigham,  A.  P.,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History,  ch.  I. 
Farrand,  L.,  Basis  of  American  History  (American  Nation  Series). 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  II,  ch.  XVIII. 

REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Eastman,  F.,  Indian  Boyhood. 

Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  III. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Source  Readers  in  American  History,  I,  pp.  91-133. 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  French  Pathfinders  in  North  America,  pp.  3-41. 

Judd,  M.  C,  Wigwam  Stories. 

Starr,  F.,  American  Indians. 


The  New  Mexico  War  Memorial  Building,  at  Santa  Fe 

Built  on  the  site  of  the  historic  palace  of  the  Governors  (1606),  the  walls  being 
a  part  of  a  prehistoric  pueblo. 


56 


CHAPTER   VI 
THE    OLD    DOMINION 

Conditions  Favorable  to  English  Colonization.  The  closing 
years  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  were  years  of  increasing 
luxury  in  the  mansions  of  the  rich,  and  of  increasing  misery  in  the 
homes  of  England's  poor.  During  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
gold  and  silver  from  the  New  World  had  increased  the  circulat- 
ing medium  in  western  Europe  threefold.  The  result  was  a 
sharp  rise  in  prices,  together  with  an  increasing  demand  for  such 
luxuries  as  chimneys  and  glass  windows,  rugs  and  carpets,  linen 
sheets  and  silken  doublets.  Rents  were  higher  than  ever  before, 
landowners  were  prosperous,  and  a  surplus  of  capital  awaited 
investment  in  any  new  enterprise  which  promised  large  returns. 
From  Mexico  and  Peru  a  stream  of  gold  was  pouring  into  the 
coffers  of  Spain  ;  might  not  Virginia  prove  a  like  source  of  wealth 
for  England  ?  The  British  East  India  Company  was  formed  in 
1600  to  develop  the  far  eastern  trade ;  and  many  of  its  members 
soon  became  interested  in  the  project  for  a  similar  company  to 
colonize  Virginia. 

While  the  middle  and  upper  classes  were  growing  richer,  the 
poor  were  growing  poorer,  another  condition  which  favored 
colonization.  English  laborers  were  in  wretched  plight,  for 
prices  had  risen  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  increase  in  wages. 
In  those  days,  justices  of  the  peace  fixed  the  rate  of  wages  to  be 
paid  in  each  community ;  if  a  laborer  refused  to  work  at  the 
established  rate,  he  could  be  arrested  as  a  vagabond  and  sent  to 
jail.  The  increased  price  of  wool  in  the  sixteenth  century  led  to 
a  change  from  agriculture  to  sheep  raising,  especially  in  the 
midland  counties  of  England.  Thousands  of  agricultural  laborers 
were  thrown  out  of  work  ;  and  many  of  them  found  their  way  to 
the  cities  and  towns,  where  they  lived  in  idleness  and  want. 
Then  too,  the  closing  of  the  monasteries  in  the  reign  of  King 

57 


58  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

Henry  VIII  had  taken  away  the  livelihood  of  tenants  and 
laborers  on  the  church  lands,  while  also  depriving  the  poor  and 
friendless  of  a  place  of  refuge.  The  end  of  the  wars  with  Spain 
increased  the  number  of  unemployed  men.  Apparently  only  the 
plague  remained  to  relieve  the  land  of  its  surplus  inhabitants. 
Under  these  conditions,  the  "  merrie  England  "  of  Shakespeare's 
day  was  not  a  merry  place  for  the  English  laborer.  Small  wonder 
that  thousands  grasped  eagerly  at  the  prospect  of  finding  homes 
in  that  Virginia  described  by  Ben  Jonson  as  "  a  land  of  en- 
chantment, where  gold  and  silver  is  more  plentifull  than  copper 
is  with  us." 

Thus  in  the  opening  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  three 
conditions  in  England  were  favorable  to  colonization.  There 
was  a  surplus  of  capital  seeking  investment,  a  surplus  of  laborers 
seeking  employment,  and  a  keen  desire  to  plant  colonies  which 
should  furnish  raw  materials,  such  as  lumber,  iron,  and  copper, 
in  exchange  for  the  products  of  England's  growing  manufactures. 

The  Virginia  Grant,  1606.  The  failure  of  Raleigh's  expedi- 
tions proved  that  colonization  could  not  be  readily  carried  on  by 
an  individual,  because  of  the  large  expense  involved.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  success  of  the  East  India  Company  suggested 
the  plan  of  a  similar  company  of  men  to  undertake  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Virginia.  Accordingly,  King  James  issued  a  patent  or 
charter  which  formed  two  companies  for  the  colonization  of 
North  America  between  the  34th  and  45th  degrees  north  lati- 
tude. The  London  Company  was  authorized  to  plant  a  settle- 
ment called  the  First  Colony  in  some  "  fit  and  convenient  place  " 
between  the  34th  and  41st  parallels,  or  between  Cape  Fear  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River.  The  Plymouth  Company  was 
granted  the  right  to  locate  a  "  Second  Colony  "  somewhere 
between  the  38th  and  45th  parallels,  or  between  the  Potomac 
River  and  Halifax.  Thus  the  grants  to  the  two  companies  over- 
lapped by  three  degrees.  In  other  words,  the  land  between 
the  Potomac  and  Hudson  rivers  (from  the  38th  to  the  41st 
parallels)  was  open  to  settlement  by  either  company,  but 
neither  was  to  plant  within  one  hundred  miles  of  any  settlement 
begun  by  the  other. 


THE    OLD   DOMINION 


59 


Principal  English  Grants,  1606-1665 

34°-41°  Areas  within  which  the  charter  of  1306  granted  to  the  London  Company  and  to  the  Plymouth 
88 "-45°  Company,  respectively,  the  right  to  found  a  settlement  extending  one  hundred  miles  along 
the  coast  and  the  same  distance  inland. 

Z1X~    +X*  "-«   Interpretationsof  the  limits  of  the  area  granted  by  the  "Virginia"  charter  of  1609. 


The  Spanish  ambassador  protested  against  this  attempt  to 
plant  colonies  on  territory  which  formed  part  of  the  Spanish 
Indies  ;  but  King  James  replied  that  he  was  not  aware  that  Spain 
had  any  claim  to  Virginia.  At  the  north,  the  grant  was  likewise 
in  defiance  of  the  French  title  to  Nova  Scotia,  where  a  settlement 
had  already  been  made  at  Port  Royal. 

The  First  Virginia  Charter.  The  plan  of  government  for  the 
new  colonies  was  a  very  elaborate  one.  Supreme  authority  over 
each  colony  was  vested  in  a  Council  for  Virginia,  appointed  by 
the  king  from  leading  men  residing  in  England.  A  second  coun- 
cil of  thirteen  members  was  to  reside  in  the  colony  and  manage 
its  local  affairs,  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  council  in  England, 
which  in  turn  was  subject  to  the  king. 

One  important  clause  of  this  first  Virginia  charter  declared 
that  the  colonists  should  have  all  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
English  subjects  at  home.  This  was  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
position  of  the  Spanish  and  French  colonists  in  the  New  World, 
who  were  regarded  as  outside  the  laws  and  privileges  of  home 
dwellers.  The  English  colonist,  on  the  contrary,  took  with  him 
to  the  New  World  all  the  rights  of  Englishmen.  He  carried  with 
him  the  English  common  law,  with  its  time-honored  safeguards 


60  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

of  individual  liberty.  When  difficulties  afterwards  arose  between 
the  colonies  and  the  mother  country,  the  colonists  appealed  to 
the  principles  of  the  common  law,  and  claimed  that  the  king  and 
Parliament  were  seeking  to  deprive  them  of  privileges  which 
were  their  birthright  as  Englishmen. 

The  Founding  of  Jamestown,  1607.  To  the  London  Company 
fell  the  honor  of  planting  the  first  permanent  English  settlement 
on  American  soil.  Three  small  ships  bearing  one  hundred  and 
five  colonists  passed  the  Virginia  capes  on  May  6,  1607,  and 
entered  Chesapeake  Bay.  Ascending  the  broad  river  which  they 
named  the  James  in  honor  of  their  king,  the  colonists  selected 
their  "  seating-place  "  at  a  point  about  thirty  miles  up  the 
river.  It  was  not  a  favorable  site ;  for  Jamestown,  as  the  settle- 
ment was  called,  was  on  a  low  peninsula,  with  malarial  swamps 
all  about.  A  fort  was  soon  constructed,  also  a  church  and  store- 
house ;  while  in  the  rear  a  little  street  was  laid  out,  along  which 
huts  were  built. 

For  years  the  colony  had  a  hard  struggle  to  maintain  itself. 
The  Indians  were  unfriendly  from  the  first,  for  they  no  longer 
regarded  the  white  man  as  a  supernatural  being.  Exploring 
for  gold  was  more  attractive  than  planting  corn ;  but  the  gold 
turned  out  to  be  worthless  iron  pyrites,  and  within  a  few  months, 
famine  and  disease  carried  away  nearly  one  half  of  the  settlers. 
The  London  Company  was  unreasonable  in  its  demands  for 
immediate  returns  from  the  colonists,  many  of  whom  were 
gentlemen  adventurers  unaccustomed  to  hard  work  and  drawn 
to  Virginia  by  the  lure  of  gold.  Then  too,  the  charter  provided 
for  a  communistic  system;  everything  the  settlers  produced 
was  placed  in  a  common  stock,  and  all  were  fed  and  clothed 
from  the  company's  storehouse.  The  water  supply  was  bad,  and 
fever  and  ague  from  the  swamps  cost  many  lives.  Of  three 
hundred  colonists  sent  over  during  the  first  three  years,  only 
eighty  remained  alive  at  the  end  of  that  time.  The  colony 
seemed  on  the  verge  of  ruin. 

Captain  John  Smith.  Jamestown  was  saved  from  this  fate 
by  the  energy  and  ability  of  Captain  John  Smith,  a  bold, 
resourceful  man  whose  gifts  of  leadership   finally   made   him 


THE    OLD    DOMINION 


61 


President  of  the  Council.  Before  coming  to  America,  Smith  had 
roamed  over  many  countries  of  Europe  as  a  soldier  of  fortune, 
but  here  in  Virginia  he  was  an  example  of  industry  to  all.  He 
won  the  friendship  of  the  neighboring  Indian  tribes,  explored 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries,  and  most  important  of  all, 
put  every  one  to  work  at  planting  corn.  "  He  that  will  not  work 
shall  not  eat,"  was  the  rule  en- 
forced by  this  strong  leader  ; 
and  his  firmness  and  energy 
saved  the  colony  from  star- 
vation. When  the  London 
Company  complained  of  the 
lack  of  returns  from  its 
struggling  colony,  Smith  re- 
plied that  they  had  com- 
menced the  work  of  produc- 
ing tar,  glass,  soap,  and  clap- 
boards, but  that  all  this 
progressed  slowly  in  a  new 
country.  He  struck  the  root 
of  the  whole  matter  when  he 
wrote  :  "  When  you  send 
again,  I  entreat  you,  send 
but  thirty  carpenters,  hus- 
bandmen, gardeners,  fisher- 
men, blacksmiths,  masons, 
and  diggers  up  of  trees'  roots, 
well  provided,  rather  than  one  thousand  of  such  as  we  have." 
The  Starving  Time.  In  the  summer  of  1609,  Smith  was 
injured  by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder,  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land. The  starving  time  followed,  a  period  of  misery  without 
parallel  in  the  history  of  English  colonization.  When  only 
sixty  colonists  remained  out  of  the  five  hundred  who  had  come 
to  Virginia,  it  was  decided  to  abandon  Jamestown.  On  their  way 
to  the  sea,  the  starving  settlers  met  the  newly  appointed 
governor,  Lord  Delaware,  bringing  men  and  supplies.  So  they 
turned  back  to  the  scene  of  their  suffering,  and  the  colony  was 


Captain  John  Smith 

Copied  from  the  original  engraving  in 
John  Smith's  History  of  New  England, 
Virginia,  and  the  Summer  Isles,  published 
in  1624. 


62  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

saved.  Lord  Delaware  brought  with  him  a  new  charter  that 
changed  the  boundaries  of  Virginia.  The  colony  was  to  include 
the  territory  two  hundred  miles  north  and  two  hundred  miles 
south  of  Old  Point  Comfort,  and  was  to  extend  up  into  the 
continent  "  from  sea  to  sea,  west  and  northwest.  "  This  vague 
grant  was  the  basis  for  Virginia's  later  claim  to  the  country 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  River. 

Economic  and  Social  Conditions.  Lord  Delaware  was  soon 
succeeded  as  governor  by  Sir  Thomas  Dale,  under  whose  stern 
rule  Virginia  began  to  prosper.  Governor  Dale  gave  a  private 
garden  of  three  acres  to  each  settler,  putting  an  end  to  the 
plan  under  which  all  were  fed  from  a  common  storehouse.  There 
was  now  an  incentive  to  work,  and  famine  never  again  threatened 
the  colony.  The  colonists  gave  up  hope  of  finding  gold  and 
silver  in  the  forests  of  Virginia ;  but  about  the  year  1616,  they 
found  a  real  source  of  wealth  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco. 
King  James  opposed  the  use  of  the  weed,  and  wrote  against  it 
a  Counterblast  to  Tobacco ;  but  it  was  hard  to  prevent  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  plant  which  brought  from  three  to  five  shillings  a 
pound  in  the  English  market.  It  soon  became  the  staple  crop  of 
the  colony ;  at  Jamestown  the  market  place,  and  even  the 
■narrow  margin  of  the  streets,  was  set  with  tobacco.  The  new 
crop  meant  wealth  for  the  planters  and  prosperity  for  Virginia. 

Few  women  had  as  yet  come  to  Virginia,  and  one  of  the  great 
events  of  the  year  1619  was  the  arrival  of  ninety  maidens, 
"  young,  handsome,  and  well  recommended,"  sent  over  by  the 
London  Company  to  become  wives  of  the  bachelor  planters. 
No  suitor  was  allowed  to  claim  his  bride  until  he  had  paid  the 
company  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  tobacco  for  her 
passage.  The  establishment  of  English  homes  in  the  colony 
laid  the  sure  foundation  of  a  future  state. 

Representative  Government  in  Virginia.  The  year  1619  also 
marks  the  beginning  of  representative  government  in  Virginia. 
At  this  time  the  London  Company  elected  as  its  treasurer  Sir 
Edwin  Sandys,  a  man  who  believed  in  individual  liberty  and 
self-government.  Through  his  influence,  the  governor  of  Virginia 
was  instructed  to  hold  an  election  for  a  legislature  or  House  of 


The  old  dominion  6§ 

Burgesses,  to  be  composed  of  two  representatives  from  each 
borough.  The  first  House  of  Burgesses  met  in  the  little  church 
at  Jamestown  on  July  30,  1619.  It  consisted  of  the  governor  and 
his  six  councilors,  who  sat  in  the  front  seats  with  their  hats  on, 
and  twenty  burgesses  who  sat  in  the  rear.  During  a  session  that 
lasted  for  six  days,  laws  were  passed  "  against  idleness,  gaming, 
drunkenness,  and  excesse  in  apparell;"  ordering  every  house- 
holder to  plant  corn,  mulberry  trees,  flax,  hemp,  and  grapevines  ; 
and  commanding  every  one  to  attend  divine  service  on  the 
Sabbath  day. 

This  first  representative  assembly  had  several  important 
results : 

(1)  From  this  time  on  in  the  history  of  Virginia,  the  power 
of  the  governor  was  always  somewhat  restricted. 

(2)  This  idea  of  the  right  of  the  people  to  make  their  own 
laws  soon  prevailed  throughout  the  English  colonies  in  America, 
and  later  became  the  basis  of  our  present  state  and  national 
governments. 

(3)  From  its  small  beginnings,  the  House  of  Burgesses  devel- 
oped great  power  and  influence.  It  served  in  the  eighteenth 
century  as  a  training  school  for  such  famous  leaders  as  Patrick 
Henry,  James  Madison,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  George  Wash- 
ington. 

Servants  and  Slaves.  At  first  the  increasing  demand  for 
cheap  labor  on  the  tobacco  plantations  was  met  by  bringing 
over  "  indentured  "  white  servants.  Many  of  these  had  given  a 
bond  or  indenture,  binding  themselves  to  work  a  certain  number 
of  years  for  planters  who  had  advanced  their  passage  money  to 
Virginia.  A  less  desirable  class  of  indentured  servants  consisted 
of  criminals  and  vagabonds,  sentenced  for  various  offenses  to 
hard  labor  in  the  colony.  These  white  servants  formed  the 
greater  part  of  the  laboring  population  of  Virginia  until  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  white  servants  were  rapidly  dis- 
placed by  another  class  of  laborers.  Probably  the  first  negroes 
to  arrive  in  Virginia  were  some  twenty  in  number,  brought  over 
by  a  Dutch  man-of-war  which  entered  the  James  River  in  1619. 


64  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

The  planters  gladly  purchased  the  negroes,  who  were  at  first 
held  in  temporary  servitude  like  the  white  servants.  Gradually 
the  traffic  in  negroes  increased,  and  by  1661  their  condition  be- 
came that  of  permanent  slavery.  The  colonists  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  saw  no  harm  in  enslaving  the  negro,  and  doubt- 
less the  Indians  of  Virginia  would  also  have  been  made  slaves 
if  they  had  not  proved  so  intractable. 

Virginia  Becomes  a  Royal  Province,  1624.  A  firm  believer 
in  the  "  Divine  Right  of  Kings/'  James  I  viewed  with  distrust 
the  growth  of  popular  government  in  Virginia.  He  forbade  the 
reelection  of  the  liberal  Sandys  as  treasurer  of  the  London 
Company,  telling  its  members  "  to  choose  the  devil  if  you  will, 
but  not  Sir  Edwin  Sandys."  A  terrible  Indian  massacre  in 
1622  cost  the  lives  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  colonists. 
Using  this  as  a  pretext,  King  James  secured  from  the  Chief 
Justice  a  decision  that  the  Company's  charter  was  forfeited 
for  mismanagement;  and  in  this  way  the  London  Company 
came  to  an  end. 

From  1624  until  the  American  Revolution,  Virginia  remained 
a  royal  province,  with  a  governor  appointed  by  the  king. 
Death  interfered  to  prevent  King  James  from  carrying  out  his 
plan  to  abolish  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  his  son,  King 
Charles  I,  allowed  this  representative  body  to  continue.  Thus 
Virginia  furnished  the  pattern  of  government  sooner  or  later 
provided  for  most  of  the  English  colonies.  There  was  a  governor 
and  an  executive  council  appointed  by  the  king,  and  a  colonial 
assembly  elected  by  the  people. 

Virginia's  Loyalty  to  the  King.  Charles  I  soon  entered  upon 
the  long  conflict  with  Parliament  which  ended  in  his  death  on 
the  scaffold  in  1649.  England  then  became  a  Commonwealth 
in  name,  although  Oliver  Cromwell  was  in  fact  dictator  under 
the  title  of  "  Lord  Protector."  The  Virginia  colonists  remained 
loyal  to  the  Stuart  cause  in  these  troubled  times,  and  even 
invited  the  son  of  Charles  I  to  take  refuge  in  the  colony.  Thou- 
sands of  Cavaliers,  or  supporters  of  the  Royalist  cause,  came 
over  to  Virginia.  This  immigration  increased  the  aristocratic 
element  in  the  colony,  and  made  Virginia  more  devoted  than 


THE    OLD   DOMINION 


65 


Early  Settlements  in  Virginia 


ever  to  the  cause  of  the  king.  The  colonists  at  first  refused  to 
recognize  the  Commonwealth  government,  but  a  fleet  sent  over 
by  Parliament  compelled  them  to  do  so.  In  return,  Virginia  was 
allowed  to  retain  her  representative  assembly,  and  the  colonists 
were  confirmed  in  the  rights  and  liberties  of  free-born  persons 
in  England.  Affairs  at  home  kept  Cromwell  busy,  and  he  paid 
little  attention  to  the  distant  colony. 

Upon  the  death  of  Cromwell  and  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  in  the  person  of  King  Charles  II,  Virginia  hastened  to 
recognize  his  authority.  Sir  William  Berkeley  again  became 
governor,  and  grew  more  bigoted  than  ever  in  his  zeal  for  the 
king.  A  new  seal  for  Virginia  bearing  the  old  coat  of  arms  of  the 
London  Company  was  adopted ;  its  motto  proudly  set  forth 
that  Virginia  was  to  rank  along  with  King  Charles'  other  four 
dominions,  namely,  England,  Scotland,  France,  and  Ireland, 
as  a  fifth  dominion.  The  people  of  Virginia  were  very  proud  of 
this  distinction,  and  always  referred  to  their  colony  as  ' '  The  Old 
Dominion." 


66  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

Berkeley's  Rule  and  Bacon's  Rebellion.  For  sixteen  years 
following  the  Restoration  in  1660,  Governor  Berkeley  ruled 
Virginia  with  a  high  hand.  He  kept  the  same  House  of  Burgesses 
in  office  for  many  years  without  reelection,  and  gave  his  assent 
to  the  large  taxes  which  it  placed  upon  the  people.  Meantime, 
the  colonists  were  suffering  from  a  steady  fall  in  the  price  of 
tobacco,  as  well  as  from  heavy  taxes  and  bad  government. 
Virginia  was  on  the  verge  of  revolt  in  1675 ;  and  Berkeley's 
refusal  to  put  down  an  Indian  uprising,  or  to  permit  the  colonists 
to  do  so,  finally  led  to  Bacon's  Rebellion. 

The  governor's  private  interest  in  the  fur  trade  was  probably 
responsible  for  his  refusal  to  punish  the  Indians,  who  had 
murdered  two  settlers  on  the  frontier  plantations.  Resolving 
to  protect  themselves,  the  men  of  Charles  City  County  chose  a 
popular  young  planter  named  Nathaniel  Bacon  to  lead  them 
against  the  savages.  Berkeley  refused  to  grant  Bacon  a  military 
commission,  and  proclaimed  his  followers  a  band  of  rebels ;  but 
Bacon  marched  into  the  wilderness  with  only  seventy  men,  and 
inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the  Indians.  On  his  return  to 
Jamestown,  a  conflict  between  Bacon  and  the  governor  ended 
in  the  flight  of  Berkeley  and  the  burning  of  Jamestown.  But  in 
the  hour  of  victory,  Bacon  died  from  fever.  Berkeley  then 
defeated  his  followers,  and  hanged  thirteen  of  them  as  a  warning 
to  all  who  defied  his  authority.  This  cruelty  displeased  King 
Charles,  who  ordered  Berkeley  back  to  England. 

The  rebellion  rid  the  colony  of  its  despotic  governor,  and 
enabled  the  Virginians  to  place  their  grievances  before  the 
king.  A  new  assembly  representing  the  will  of  the  people  was 
chosen,  and  it  was  no  longer  possible  for  a  few  men  to  use  the 
colony  for  their  own  profit.  But  for  many  years  Virginia  was 
ruled  by  greedy  governors,  and  the  colony  was  heavily  taxed 
for  the  royal  treasury. 

Restrictions  on  Colonial  Trade.  There  were  forty  thousand 
settlers  in  Virginia  by  1670,  including  six  thousand  white 
servants  and  two  thousand  negro  slaves.  Tobacco  was  the  staple 
crop,  yielding  about  twelve  million  pounds  annually.  The  low 
price  of  tobacco  was  partly  due  to  over-production,  and  partly 


THE   OLD   DOMINION  67 

to  the  fact  that  it  could  only  be  exported  to  English  ports  where 
the  price  was  fixed  by  English  merchants.  This  situation  was 
due  to  the  economic  policy  known  as  the  Mercantile  System, 
which  assumed  that  colonies  were  planted  to  increase  the  trade 
and  manufactures  of  the  mother  country.  Parliament  in  1651 
passed  a  navigation  law  aimed  at  the  Dutch,  who  for  forty  years 
had  been  gaining  control  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world. 
Thereafter  no  products  were  to  be  brought  to  the  colonies,  or 
carried  from  the  colonies  to  Europe,  except  in  ships  of  which  the 
owner  and  a  majority  of  the  crew  were  Englishmen  or  colonials. 
This  policy  of  restriction  was  carried  further  by  later  acts. 
The  chief  raw  materials  exported  from  the  colonies,  such  as 
sugar,  tobacco,  cotton  wool,  and  dyewoods,  must  first  be 
carried  to  England ;  while  all  European  exports  to  the  colonies 
must  be  sent  to  England  and  there  unloaded,  before  they  could 
be  shipped  to  America. 

The  object  of  these  laws  was  to  give  English  manufacturers 
a  monopoly  of  the  colonial  market  both  for  the  purchase  of  raw 
materials  and  for  the  sale  of  their  own  manufactured  products. 
Staunch  loyalist  as  he  was,  even  Governor  Berkeley  denounced 
the  Navigation  Acts  as  "  mighty  and  destructive ;  for  it  is  not 
lawfull  for  us  to  carry  a  pipe  stave,  or  a  barrel  of  corn  to  any 
place  in  Europe  out  of  the  king's  dominions.  If  this  were  for  His 
Majesty's  service  or  the  good  of  his  subjects,  we  should  not 
repine,  whatever  our  sufferings  are  for  it ;  but  on  my  soul,  it 
is  the  contrary  for  both." 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  42-52. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  54-80. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  VII-VIII. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  II. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  ch.  X. 
Tyler,  L.  G.,  England  in  America,  chs.  Ill- VI. 


68 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Deake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle  Colonies,  pp.  1- 

65. 
Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  XI. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Source  Readers  in  American  History,  I,  pp.  165-199. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Statesmen  and  Patriots,  I,  pp.  62-67. 
Higginson,  T.  W.,  Book  of  American  Explorers,  ch.  XL 
Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  19-25. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies  (Epochs  of  American  History),  pp.  66- 

81. 


From  an  old  painting. 

Bacon's  Quarrel  with  Governor 
Berkeley 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE    OTHER    SOUTHERN    COLONIES 

Lord  Baltimore  and  His  Grant.  For  many  years,  Catholics 
as  well  as  Puritans  were  persecuted  in  England  because  they 
would  not  attend  the  Established  Church.  Nevertheless, 
Catholic  noblemen  often  found  favor  with  the  Stuart  kings, 
one  of  whom,  Charles  I,  had  married  a  Catholic  princess.  So 
when  George  Calvert,  the  first  Lord  Baltimore,  planned  to 
establish  an  American  colony  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  his  fellow 
Catholics,  he  found  the  king  ready  to  help  him.  The  London 
Company  forfeited  its  charter  in  1624,  making  it  possible 
for  the  king  to  subdivide  Virginia's  territory.  Accordingly, 
in  1632  King  Charles  granted  to  his  friend,  Lord  Baltimore, 
about  twelve  thousand  square  miles  of  land  lying  on  both 
sides  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  territory  included  in  the  grant 
covered  the  present  states  of  Maryland  and  Delaware,  as  well 
as  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia.  Baltimore  died 
before  he  could  carry  out  his  plans,  but  his  eldest  son  Cecil, 
the  second  Lord  Baltimore,  took  up  the  work. 

A  New  Kind  of  Colony.  The  Maryland  charter  created  a 
new  kind  of  colony.  By  this  charter  the  king  granted  his  own 
right  to  govern  to  Lord  Baltimore,  who  was  to  be  known  as 
the  proprietor  or  "owner  of  the  colony.  As  a  token  of  his  al- 
legiance, Lord  Baltimore  was  to  send  the  king  yearly  two 
Indian  arrow  heads,  together  with  one  fifth  of  all  the  gold  and 
silver  that  was  mined.  As  proprietor  of  the  colony,  Lord  Balti- 
more had  almost  absolute  control.  He  could  declare  war,  make 
peace,  appoint  officials,  pardon  criminals,  and  confer  titles; 
and  none  of  these  acts  had  to  be  confirmed  by  the  king.  But 
Baltimore  had  to  call  the  colonists  to  his  aid  in  making  the 
laws,  and  he  could  not  tax  them  without  their  consent. 


70 


COLONIZATION    OF   THE    NEW   WORLD 


The  Founding  of  Maryland,  1633.  Lord  Baltimore  himself 
never  saw  the  shores  of  Maryland,  yet  he  proved  an  energetic 
and  successful  proprietor.  The  first  expedition  of  two  hundred 
colonists  sailed  for  Maryland  under  the  command  of  Leonard 
Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore's  brother,  who  was  to  act  as  governor. 
The  place  chosen  for  the  settlement  was  on  a  small  river  named 
the  St.  George,  in  honor  of  the  patron  saint  of  England ;  their 

first  town  was   called   St. 
Mary's. 

The  little  settlement 
prospered  from  the  begin- 
ning ;  there  was  no  starving 
time  here,  as  in  Virginia 
and  at  Plymouth.  Before 
the  first  year  was  over,  the 
people  of  Maryland  were 
able  to  exchange  a  shipload 
of  corn  for  a  cargo  of 
New  England  codfish.  The 
settlers  were  thrifty  and 
industrious ;  for  Lord  Bal- 
timore took  pains  to  send 
artisans  and  laboring  men 
to  his  colony,  instead  of 
adventurers  and  fine  gen- 
tlemen like  the  early  Vir- 
ginia settlers.  Tobacco  be- 
came the*  leading  product, 
and  the  people  lived  on  large  plantations  along  the  waterways, 
where  English  ships  might  come  to  load.  Hence  in  Maryland, 
as  in  Virginia,  there  were  no  large  towns. 

Representative  Government.  The  charter  gave  the  colonists 
the  right  to  help  make  the  laws.  All  the  freemen  at  first  met 
together  for  this  purpose ;  but  since  the  plantations  were  far 
apart,  the  custom  grew  up  of  allowing  freemen  who  could  not  be 
present  to  send  their  proxies  to  those  who  could  attend.  Finally, 
instead  of  sending  votes  by  proxy,  a  representative  was  chosen 


Cecil  Calvert,  the  Second  Lord  Balti- 
more 

From  an  engraving  in  the  New  York 
Public  Library.  This  portrait  shows  the 
dress  of  an  English  Cavalier. 


THE  OTHER  SOUTHERN  COLONIES       71 

to  express  the  will  of  the  people  of  each  section.  By  1650 
Maryland  had  a  representative  assembly,  as  well  as  a  governor 
and  his  council,  all  subject  to  the  general  control  of  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  colony. 

Religious  Toleration.  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics  came 
to  the  colony  in  large  numbers,  for  Maryland  welcomed  all  who 
professed  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  Lord  Baltimore  set  a  noble 
example  to  the  other  colonies  by  his  famous  "  Toleration  Act 
of  1649  "  which  declared :  "  No  person  or  persons  whatsoever 
within  this  Province  professing  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ, 
shall  from  henceforth  be  in  any  way  molested  in  respect  to  his 
or  her  religion."  The  passing  of  the  Toleration  Act  was  partly 
due  to  worldly  prudence,  since  the  Puritans  were  in  power  in 
England ;  but  it  also  reflects  the  liberal  and  tolerant  spirit 
of  Lord  Baltimore.  Rhode  Island  was  the  only  other  colony  in 
America  founded  on  the  broad  principle  of  religious  freedom; 
to-day  this  principle  is  the  pride  of  the  entire  United  States. 

Maryland's  Boundary  Quarrel  with  Virginia.  The  Virginia 
colonists  were  indignant  over  the  grant  to  Lord  Baltimore  of 
territory  that  had  belonged  to  them.  Long  years  of  dispute 
followed,  especially  over  the  ownership  of  Kent  Island  where 
William  Claiborne,  a  Virginian,  had  established  a  trading  post 
within  the  limits  of  Baltimore's  grant.  Claiborne  was  finally 
driven  off  by  the  governor  of  Maryland,  but  this  did  not  end 
the  trouble.  During  the  Civil  War  in  England,  the  Baltimores 
took  sides  with  King  Charles  II.  Claiborne  thought  this  a  good 
time  to  be  revenged  on  the  Catholic  rulers  of  Maryland.  Aided 
by  Maryland  Protestants  who  forgot  the  kind  treatment  they 
had  received,  his  forces  seized  the  town  of  St.  Mary's.  The 
Baltimores  were  driven  from  the  colony,  the  Toleration  Act 
was  repealed,  and  the  Catholics  were  persecuted.  In  the  end, 
the  new  ruler  of  England,  Oliver  Cromwell,  restored  Lord 
Baltimore  as  proprietor,  after  which  religious  toleration  again 
prevailed. 

When  James  II  was  driven  from  the  throne  of  England  in 
1688,  the  Protestants  of  Maryland  again  rose  in  revolt.  The 
proprietorship  was  taken  away  from  the  Baltimores,  and  for 


72  COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW    WORLD 

some  years  the  colony  was  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
English  rulers.  Maryland,  was  finally  restored  in  1715  to  the 
Baltimores,  who  continued  in  power  until  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. Nearly  a  century  passed  after  the  first  settlement  of 
Maryland  before  its  chief  city  was  founded  at  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  named  Baltimore  in  honor  of  the  pro- 
prietor. 

Early  Settlements  in  North  Carolina.  The  large  tract  of 
land  lying  between  Virginia  on  the  north  and  the  Spanish 
settlements  on  the  south  was  unoccupied  for  a  long  time.  The 
first  settlers  were  adventure-loving  Virginians  who  came  to 
explore  the  country  to  the  southward.  The  House  of  Burgesses 
issued  permits  to  any  colonists  who  wished  to  trade  with  the 
Indians  in  this  region,  and  a  little  group  of  Virginians  settled 
near  the  waters  of  Albemarle  Sound.  Some  men  from  New 
England  tried  to  plant  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cape 
Fear  River,  but  they  soon  gave  up  in  despair  and  left  the  place 
to  be  occupied  by  settlers  from  Barbados.  These  were  the 
beginnings  of  what  was  to  develop  into  the  colony  of  North 
Carolina. 

The  Proprietors  of  the  Carolinas.  Soon  after  he  came  to  the 
throne,  King  Charles  II  gave  to  eight  of  his  favorites  the  im- 
mense tract  of  land  south  of  Virginia  in  which  these  settlements 
were  made.  These  men  were  to  be  the  proprietors  of  the  colony, 
like  Lord  Baltimore  in  Maryland.  So  the  Carolinas  became  a 
proprietary  colony,  differing  from  Maryland  chiefly  in  having 
eight  proprietors  where  Maryland  had  but  one.  The  pro- 
prietors were  to  make  laws  with  the  consent  of  the  people  of 
the  colony.  They  could  sell  lands,  collect  rents,  appoint  officials, 
and  grant  titles  of  nobility.  The  proprietors  promptly  set  to 
work  to  make  a  settlement.  The  first  colonists  reached  the  Caro- 
lina coast  in  1670.  They  settled  on  the  Ashley  River,  but 
afterwards  moved  to  the  place  where  the  city  of  Charleston 
now  stands.  Many  French  Protestants  or  Huguenots  came 
to  Charleston  about  ten  years  later.  They  had  been  driven 
from  their  mother  country  by  religious  persecution,  and  proved 
thrifty  and  intelligent  settlers. 


The  Other  Southern  Colonies 
Near  the  headwaters  of  the  principal  rivers,  the  colonists  established  a 
chain  of  forts  to  protect  the  frontier.  General  Oglethorpe  founded  his  colony 
despite  Spanish  claims  to  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Charleston.  After  erect- 
ing Fort  Frederica  at  the  southern  extremity  of  his  charter  limit,  he  main- 
tained small  posts  at  Forts  William,  St.  Andrew,  and  St.  George  to  combat 
Spanish  claims. 


73 


74  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

The  proprietors  planned  to  govern  their  colony  by  an  elab- 
orate constitution  unsuited  to  frontier  conditions.  It  provided 
for  a  feudal  system,  under  which  a  few  men  were  to  own  the 
land  and  govern  it  without  the  cooperation  of  the  people.  The 
sturdy  Carolina  pioneers  would  not  submit  to  such  a  plan,  and 
in  the  end  the  proprietors  granted  them  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, with  an  elective  assembly  as  in  the  other  colonies. 

The  Carolinas  Become  Royal  Colonies,  1729.  The  Carolina 
settlers  had  to  contend  against  many  difficulties.  The  Spaniards 
on  the  south  were  hostile,  as  were  also  the  Indian  tribes  in  their 
midst.  Another  danger  was  from  the  pirates  who  hovered  along 
the  seacoast ;  they  plundered  vessels,  levied  tribute,  and  made 
themselves  at  home  in  the  Carolina  ports.  In  all  of  these 
conflicts,  the  settlers  had  almost  no  support  from  the  pro- 
prietors, with  whom  they  had  a  standing  quarrel.  Finally, 
the  proprietors  gave  up  the  task  of  government,  and  sold 
their  colony  to  the  king.  The  territory  was  then  divided  into 
two  colonies,  North  and  South  Carolina,  each  with  its  own 
governor  appointed  by  the  king,  and  an  assembly  chosen  by 
the  people. 

The  People  and  Their  Industries.  North  and  South  Carolina 
differed  from  one  another  in  their  industries.  In  South  Carolina, 
rice  and  indigo  were  the  chief  products.  The  cultivation  of  rice 
called  for  large  plantations  and  slave  labor.  The  planters  lived 
in  Charleston,  leaving  their  estates  in  charge  of  overseers; 
and  this  city  soon'  became  the  center  of  social  life  in  the  South. 
North  Carolina  relied  more  upon  the  export  of  tar  and  turpen- 
tine. Instead  of  owning  large  plantations,  her  settlers  lived 
upon  small  farms.  Slaves  were  never  very  numerous  in  this 
colony,  while  in  South  Carolina  they  soon  outnumbered  the 
white  settlers.  Large  numbers  of  Quakers  made  their  homes 
in  North  Carolina,  besides  many  Scotch-Irish,  who  were  driven 
to  America  by  the  unfriendly  laws  passed  by  the  British  Par- 
liament. Later,  some  Germans  from  Pennsylvania  settled  in 
the  mountain  valleys ;  and  about  1745,  large  numbers  of  Scotch 
Highlanders  came  to  the  colony  after  their  unsuccessful  rebel- 
lion against  the  English  king. 


THE  OTHER  SOUTHERN  COLONIES        75 

Oglethorpe's  Plan  to  Relieve  English  Debtors.  Georgia,  the 
youngest  of  the  English  colonies  in  America,  was  planted  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  years  after  the  first  settlement  at 
Jamestown.  Its  founder  was  General  James  Edward  Oglethorpe, 
a  gallant  soldier  who  had  been  elected  to  Parliament.  As 
chairman  of  a  committee  to  investigate  English  prisons,  Ogle- 
thorpe found  conditions  very 
bad.  Honest  men  were 
often  arrested  for  a  debt  of 
a  few  dollars  which  they 
were  unable  to  pay.  They 
were  held  in  foul  jails  until 
their  health  gave  way,  while 
their  families  were  left  to 
struggle  as  best  they  could. 
Deeply  moved  by  what  he 
saw,  Oglethorpe  suggested 
the  plan  of  taking  the  debt- 
ors out  of  jail,  and  sending 
them  to  a  colony  in  America 
where  they  might  begin  life 
over  again. 

Georgia  a  Barrier  Colony. 

Oglethorpe  won  the  support 

J ,  ,  „  James  Edward  Oglethorpe 

of  many  clergymen  as  well 

as  members  of  the  nobility  for  his  enterprise.  Among  the 
former  were  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  the  founders  of  the 
Methodist  religion.  He  prevailed  also  upon  the  merchants  of 
London  and  upon  Parliament  to  help  pay  the  debts  of  those  who 
were  willing  to  emigrate  to  the  New  World.  The  English  gov- 
ernment was  favorable  to  the  plan,  for  Oglethorpe  proposed  to 
plant  his  colony  south  of  the  Carolinas,  to  serve  as  a  barrier 
against  the  Spanish  power  in  Florida.  The  new  colony  was 
named  in  honor  of  King  George  II ;  it  included  all  the  land  be- 
tween the  Savannah  and  Altamaha  rivers,  and  extending  from 
their  source  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  charter 
created  a  proprietary  government,  but  the  owners  were  not  to 


76  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

have  such  large  powers  as  the  proprietors  of  Maryland  or  the 
Carolinas.  Slavery  was  prohibited,  and  it  was  decreed  that 
foreigners  should  have  equal  rights  with  Englishmen.  Ogle- 
thorpe was  to  be  the  governor,  and  he  promptly  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  first  band  of  settlers. 

The  trustees  could  not  send  to  Georgia  the  multitude  of 
people  who  wished  to  take  advantage  of  the  promise  of  free 
passage  and  free  lands.  About  thirty-five  families  were  finally 
selected,  and  early  in  1733  they  settled  at  Savannah  on  lands 
secured  by  treaty  with  the  Creek  Indians.  Augusta  was  estab- 
lished two  hundred  miles  up  the  Savannah  River  as  a  frontier 
trading  station,  and  Fort  Frederica  was  built  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Altamaha  as  an  outpost  against  the  Spaniards.  The 
colony  did  not  prosper  at  first,  for  the  early  poverty-stricken 
refugees  were  not  the  men  to  build  up  a  successful  colony. 
German  Protestants  and  Scotch  Highlanders  afterwards  came 
over  in  large  numbers,  furnishing  a  more  desirable  class  of 
settlers.  The  silk  industry  was  introduced  but  soon  abandoned, 
for  the  production  of  rice  and  indigo  proved  more  profitable. 
The  trustees  gave  up  their  rights  in  1752,  and  from  this  time 
on  Georgia  was  a  royal  colony.  Oglethorpe  led  several  expedi- 
tions against  St.  Augustine ;  but  although  he  failed  to  capture 
this  post,  he  was  able  to  defeat  an  attack  by  the  Spaniards 
upon  Fort  Frederica.  So  until  the  Revolution,  Georgia  served 
its  purpose  as  a  barrier  between  the  English  colonies  and  the 
Spaniards  in  Florida. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Andrews,  C.  M.,  Colonial  Self -Government  (American  Nation  Series), 

chs.  IX-X. 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  52-58,  81-83, 

109-110. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  IX,  XII. 
Greene,  E.  B.,  Provincial  America  (American  Nation  Series),  ch.  XV. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  chs.  XI- 

XIII  ;  II,  chs.  V-VI. 
Tyler,  L.  G.,  England  in  America,  chs.  VII- VIII. 


THE  OTHER  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 


77 


REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Drake,   S.  A.,  The  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle  Colonies,  pp. 

66-89. 
Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  eh.  XII. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expa7ision  of  the  American  People,  chs.  IV-V. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  pp.  81-111. 


William  and  Mary  College,  Williamsburg 

The  merchants  of  London  pledged  the  money  to  found  this  college. 
The  charter  and  seal  were  granted  by  King  William,  February  8,  1693, 
and  the  original  building  was  designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the 
great  English  architect. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE    NEW   ENGLAND    COLONIES 

Establishing  a  National  Protestant  Church »  in  England. 
Until  late  in  the  reign  of  King  Henry  VIII,  England  remained 
a  Roman  Catholic  country,  loyal  to  the  Pope  as  supreme  head 
of  the  church.  But  when  the  Pope  refused  to  grant  King 
Henry  a  divorce,  that  monarch  broke  off  relations  with  Rome, 
and  declared  himself  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. This  act  marked  the  beginning  of  Protestantism  in 
England,  but  at  first  there  was  little  change  from  the  religious 
doctrines  of  the  old  church.  Indeed,  three  Englishmen  out 
of  four  were  still  Catholic  at  heart  when  Queen  Elizabeth,  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII,  came  to  the  throne  (1558).  But  the 
new  Church  of  England  made  steady  progress  during  Eliza- 
beth's reign.  The  Catholic  king  of  Spain  sent  a  mighty  fleet 
against  England  in  1588,  and  the  Pope  declared  him  the  rightful 
ruler  of  that  country.  This  united  Englishmen  in  a  common 
cause  against  the  invader;  it  became  more  and  more  difficult 
for  Catholics  to  continue  faithful  to  their  religion  and  still 
remain  loyal  subjects  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Origin  and  Ideals  of  the  Puritans.  Some  members  of  the 
new  Church  of  England  wished  to  do  more  than  merely  deny 
the  authority  of  the  Pope.  These  reformers,  or  Puritans  as 
they  came  to  be  called,  wished  to  purify  the  Church  of  England 
by  doing  away  with  some  of  its  ceremonies.  They  objected 
to  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism,  they  were  opposed 
to  the  use  of  the  ring  in  marriage,  they  disliked  the  wearing 
of  the  surplice  by  clergymen.  Then,  too,  the  Puritans  wanted 
more  preaching  in  the  church  service,  and  less  reading  from 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  We  must  not  imagine  that 
the  Puritan  movement  was  merely  a  quibble  about  religious 

78 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES 


79 


forms.  In  an  age  when  corruption  and  immorality  were  common, 
the  Puritans  insisted  upon  purer  living,  upon  a  higher  standard 
of  morality*  In  government,  too,  the  influence  of  the  new 
movement  was  felt ;  for  the  Puritans  stood  for  the  rights  of 
the  people,  as  opposed  to  the  absurd  Stuart  doctrine  of  the 
' '  Divine  Right ' '  of  kings . 

The  reformers  at  first 
did  not  plan  on  a  church 
of  their  own,  but  only  to 
purify  the  Established 
Church.  But  the  bitter 
persecution  by  Elizabeth 
and  her  successor,  James 
I,  drove  thousands  of 
Puritans  out  of  the 
church,  forcing  them  to 
worship  by  themselves. 
In  time  many  Puritans 
became  Independents  or 
Separatists ;  they  wished 
to  separate  entirely  from 
the  Church  of  England, 
and  form  churches  of 
their  own.  There  ought 
to  be  no  connection  be- 
tween the  churches  and 
the  government,  said  the 
Separatists.  These  men 
had  caught  a  vision  of 
the  future,  for  our  Amer- 
ican government  was 
afterwards  founded  on  this  very  principle  of  a  complete  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state. 

The  Separatists  Seek  Refuge  in  Holland.  To  deny  that  the 
English  king  is  the  supreme  head  of  the  church  was  treason; 
so  the  reformers  were  fined,  jailed,  and  persecuted  without 
mercy.    King  James  said :  "  I  will  make  the  Puritans  conform, 


The  Puritan 

The  original  statue  by  Augustus  St.  Gaudens 
in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago. 


80  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

or  I  will  harry  them  out  of  this  land,  or  worse."  The  king  was 
as  good  as  his  word ;  he  could  not  make  the  Puritans  accept  his 
religion,  but  he  forced  many  of  them  to  seek  refuge  in  foreign 
lands.  This  was  true  of  the  little  band  of  Separatists  who  lived 
at  Scrooby,  a  country  village  in  the  north  of  England.  About 
1608  this  congregation  fled  to  Holland,  then  the  only  country 
in  Europe  that  opened  its  doors  to  all  Christians  of  whatever 
creed.  The  Scrooby  emigrants  settled  at  Leyden,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Amsterdam.  They  lived  there  for  nearly  twelve  years, 
working  industriously  in  the  woolen  manufactures  for  which 
Leyden  was  famous. 

Toward  the  end  of  this  period,  the  exiles  began  to  think  of 
a  second  migration.  They  had  been  well  treated  in  Holland, 
but  they  saw  their  children  marrying  into  Dutch  families, 
and  fast  losing  their  English  speech  and  ways.  Then,  too,  it 
was  hard  for  them  to  earn  a  living  at  manufacturing,  for  they 
were  bred  to  a  simple  country  life.  Moreover,  the  times  were 
stormy  in  the  Netherlands ;  the  twelve  years'  truce  with  Spain 
was  nearing  a  close,  and  Holland  was  making  ready  for  another 
deadly  struggle  with  her  bitter  foe.  There  was  but  one  country 
where  the  exiles  might  worship  God  in  their  own  churches,  and 
still  bring  up  their  children  as  Englishmen.  That  place  was 
America. 

The  Pilgrims  Come  to  America.  The  mild  climate  and 
fertile  soil  of  Virginia  were  known  to  the  Leyden  settlers,  and 
they  hoped  to  locate  near  the  Virginia  colony.  So  they  asked 
the  London  Company  for  permission  to  settle  somewhere  on 
the  Delaware  River.  The  London  Company  promised  them 
land,  but  their  efforts  to  secure  a  charter  from  James  I  were  in 
vain.  The  best  they  could  get  from  that  narrow-minded  king 
was  a  vague  promise  that  he  would  not  molest  them  "  so  long 
as  they  lived  peaceably."  English  merchants  agreed  to  lend 
them  the  money  needed  for  the  voyage.  In  return,  everything 
produced  by  the  colonists  for  a  period  of  seven  years  was  to  be 
placed  in  a  common  stock,  and  afterwards  divided  according 
to  the  amount  invested  by  each  person. 

A  small  ship,  the  Speedwell,  brought  part  of  the  Leyden 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  81 

congregation  to  Southampton  in  July,  1620.  Here  there  was  a 
month  of  delay ;  but  at  last  the  Pilgrims,  as  we  may  now  call 
them,  set  sail  for  America  in  two  small  ships.  The  Speedwell 
belied  her  name,  for  she  soon  sprung  a  leak,  and  the  party 
turned  back  to  Plymouth  Harbor.  Alone,  the  May/lower  finally 
started  across  the  Atlantic,  with  one  hundred  and  two  men, 
women,  and  children  on  board.  The  voyage  was  a  stormy  one, 
lasting  for  nine  dreary  weeks.    Driven  northward  out  of  their 


Plymouth  Rock  as  It  Appears  To-day 

course,  the  Pilgrims  at  last  saw  before  them  the  low  sandy 
coast  of  Cape  Cod.  It  was  far  from  the  Delaware  region  to 
which  they  were  bound ;  but  after  a  month  spent  in  ex- 
ploring the  coast,  a  party  led  by  Captain  Miles  Standish  chose 
Plymouth  as  the  site  for  their  colony  (December  21,  1620). 
This  exploring  party  probably  landed  on  or  near  the  large 
bowlder  since  called  Plymouth  Rock.  On  December  26,  a 
favorable  wind  enabled  the  Mayflower  to  sail  across  the  bay  and 
cast  anchor  in  Plymouth  Harbor.    There  was  no  landing  of  the 


82  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

Mayflower  company  as  a  whole ;  and  most  of  the  colonists  lived 
on  board  the  ship  during  the  winter,  while  cabins  were  being 
built  on  shore. 

The  Mayflower  Compact.  About  a  month  before  their 
arrival  at  Plymouth,  the  little  company  met  in  the  cabin  of 
the  Mayflower,  and  drew  up  an  agreement  for  their  government. 
This  was  necessary  because  they  were  about  to  settle  far  north 
of  the  land  granted  them  by  the  London  Company,  a  fact  which 
led  a  few  unruly  spirits  to  question  the  authority  of  the  Pilgrim 
elders.  The  "Mayflower  Compact"  declared  first,  that  those 
who  signed  it  were  loyal  subjects  of  King  James  of  England ; 
second,  that  for  the  general  good  of  the  colony,  they  would 
make  such  just  and  equal  laws  as  might  prove  necessary,  to 
which  every  one  promised  due  obedience.  As  the  king  of  Eng- 
land repeatedly  refused  to  grant  a  charter,  Plymouth  Colony 
was  governed  for  seventy  years  under  this  compact.  Each  year 
the  men  of  the  colony  met  together  in  what  was  called  a  "  town 
meeting  "  to  discuss  needed  laws,  to  tax  themselves,  and  to 
elect  their  governor.  Nothing  could  be  more  democratic  than 
this  plan  of  local  self-government.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the 
famous  town-meeting  system  that  soon  spread  throughout  New 
England. 

Life  in  Plymouth  Colony.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Pilgrim 
settlement,  there  was  almost  constant  hunger.  Fish  and  game 
were  abundant ;  but  being  unused  to  fishing  and  hunting  as  well 
as  to  other  sports,  the  Pilgrims  starved  in  the  midst  of  plenty. 
They  planted  corn,  but  the  harvest  was  not  large  enough. 
Since  there  could  be  no  private  ownership  of  land  for  seven 
years,  there  was  no  reward  for  the  industrious  colonist ;  every 
one  was  fed  and  clothed  from  the  common  stock,  without 
regard  to  his  capacity  or  industry. 

Hunger  and  sickness  claimed  one  half  of  their  number  during 
that  first  terrible  winter.  Yet  when  the  Mayflower  sailed  for 
England  the  following  spring,  not  one  of  the  little  band  went 
with  her.  It  was  soon  found  necessary  to  abandon  the  plan  of 
owning  the  land  in  common.  A  parcel  of  land  was  granted  to 
each  family  for  its  own  use ;  as  a  result,  every  one  set  to  work 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES 


83 


planting  corn.  In  spite  of  this  new  spirit  of  industry,  the  dry 
summer  and  hot  sun  made  the  corn  wither  and  turn  brown.  In 
this  time  of  despair,  the  devout  spirit  of  the  Puritan  asserted 
itself.  A  day  was  set  aside  "  to  seek  the  Lord  by  humble  and 
fervent  prayer."  The  answer  was  a  refreshing  rain,  and  in  the 
end  there  was  a  full  harvest.  "  For  which  mercy,"  wrote  the 
pious  Governor  Bradford, 
"  they  also  set  apart  a  day 
of  thanksgiving." 

Friendly  Relations  with 
the  Indians.  Brave  Cap- 
tain Miles  Standish,  whose 
fame  has  been  sung  by 
Longfellow,  was  the  Pilgrim 
leader  in  arms.  He  was  the 
head  of  every  exploring 
party,  a  sure  bulwark 
against  Indian  attacks. 
Fortunately  for  the  col- 
onists, most  of  the  Indians 
in  this  region  had  been 
swept  away  by  a  deadly 
scourge,  probably  the  small- 
pox. Then,  too,  the  settlers 
had  the  aid  of  a  friendly 
Indian  named  Squanto.  Once  carried  captive  to  England, 
Squanto  knew  the  white  man's  language  and  could  act  as  in- 
terpreter. He  showed  the  Pilgrims  how  to  plant  corn,  taught 
them  to  hunt  and  to  fish,  helped  them  get  furs  and  other 
supplies  from  the  natives.  In  the  spring  after  their  arrival,  the 
colonists  were  honored  by  a  visit  from  Massasoit,  the  war  chief 
of  a  tribe  living  southward  from  Plymouth.  With  Massasoit 
the  Englishmen  made  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  alliance.  It 
was  agreed  that  neither  the  red  men  nor  the  white  should 
injure  one  another;  and  if  any  wrong  was  done,  the  offender 
should  be  punished.  This  treaty  was  faithfully  kept  by  both 
parties  for  more  than  half  a  century. 


Edward  Winslow 

From   the  only   authentic   portrait  of 
Mayflower  Pilgrim. 


7 


/! 


3 


7 


84 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


Government  of  Plymouth  Colony.  Other  settlers  came  from 
Ley  den  and  from  England.  At  first  they  brought  no  supplies  of 
any  kind,  so  there  were  only  more  hungry  mouths  to  be  fed.  But 
the  new  arrivals  did  bring  willing  hands  ;  they  brought,  too,  the 
heroic  Puritan  spirit  which  neither  starvation,  nor  disease,  nor 
royal  persecution  could  conquer.  Slowly  but  surely  these 
sturdy  Pilgrims  laid  the  solid  foundation  of  a  permanent 
colony,  the  second  English  colony  in  America.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  ten  years,  there  were  only  three  hundred  colonists  in  Ply- 


Plymouth  in  1622 


Copyright  by  A .  S.  Burbant. 


Leyden  Street  with  the  Common  House  at  the  left  and  Winslow's  at  the  end 
of  the  row.  All  are  made  of  hewn  logs,  with  roofs  of  thatch  and  windows  of 
oiled  paper.  The  fireplaces  were  made  of  stones  laid  in  clay,  and  the  chimneys 
stood  outside  the  walls.  The  stockade  with  cannon  "to  flank  along  the  streets" 
incloses  Governor  Bradford's  house. 


mouth ;  but  after  the  founding  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth 
gained  many  settlers  from  her  neighbor.  By  the  year  1643, 
Plymouth  Colony  comprised  ten  towns,  with  a  total  population 
of  three  thousand  settlers.  The  town  of  Plymouth,  the  site 
of  the  first  settlement,  remained  the  center  of  the  colony. 
The  governor  lived  here,  and  here  the  colonial  assembly  met ; 
for  as  population  grew,  representative  government  was  in- 
troduced, as  in  Virginia.    The  king  had  refused  to  give  them  a 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  85 

charter,  but  the  Pilgrims  finally  received  a  grant  of  land  from 
the  "  Council  for  New  England."  Plymouth  had  only  a  short 
history  as  a  separate  colony,  for  in  1691  it  was  joined  with  the 
larger  and  more  prosperous  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  whose 
beginnings  we  are  now  to  trace. 

The  Divine  Right  of  Kings.  When  Charles  I  came  to  the 
throne  after  the  death  of  his  father,  King  James,  the  people 
of  England  began  to  realize  that  the  Stuart  kings  would  all 
prove  to  be  tyrants.  It  had  been  a  favorite  maxim  of  James  I 
that  kings  ruled  by  Divine  Right ;  that  is,  kings  were  chosen 
by  God  to  rule  over  other  men,  and  their  subjects  owed  them 
a  blind,  unquestioning  obedience.  King  Charles  did  not  talk 
so  much  about  this  Divine  Right  theory,  but  he  put  it  into 
practice.  When  Parliament  dared  to  oppose  his  will,  the  king 
dismissed  that  body  and  ruled  for  eleven  years  without  once 
consulting  the  wishes  of  his  people.  His  chief  adviser  during 
this  period  was  the  Bishop  of  London,  William  Laud,  who 
counseled  the  king  to  persecute  all  persons  who  would  not 
accept  the  state  religion.  Fines,  imprisonment,  the  pillory, 
torture,  —  these  were  the  means  on  which  Laud  relied  to 
maintain  the  Established  Church,  and  to  crush  out  freedom  of 
thought.  It  was  an  evil  day  for  Dissenters,  whether  Separatists 
or  Puritans ;  and  the  result  was  a  great  exodus  of  Puritans  out 
of  England  to  the  New  World. 

The  Massachusetts  Bay  Company.  In  1628  a  group  of 
Puritans  under  the  leadership  of  John  Endicott  obtained  a 
patent  from  King  Charles  giving  them  certain  lands  in  America. 
Their  grant  was  only  about  sixty  miles  from  north  to  south, 
lying  between  the  Charles  and  Merrimac  rivers ;  but  it  ex- 
tended westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  then  thought  to  be  not 
far  from  the  Hudson  River.  Endicott,  with  some  fifty  or  sixty 
settlers,  reached  the  shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  September, 
1628,  and  founded  the  town  of  Salem. 

Meantime,  other  Puritans  in  England  were  making  ready 
to  join  their  comrades  in  Massachusetts.  They  were  anxious 
to  obtain  a  charter  from  the  king,  and  the  next  year,  1629, 
Charles  I  chartered  the  "  Governor  and  Company  of  Massa- 


86  COLONIZATION   OF  THE   NEW  WORLD 

chusetts  Bay  in  New  England."  This  charter  was  a  very 
^  liberal  one.  The  company  could  govern  the  colony  almost 
as  it  pleased,  except  that  no  laws  were  to  be  passed  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  England.  The  members  were  to  meet  each  year 
for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  governor,  a  deputy-governor,  and 
eighteen  assistants,  who  had  general  charge  of  the  company's 
affairs.  Four  times  a  year,  members  of  the  company  were  to 
meet  with  these  officers  in  a  General  Court  to  make  laws  for  the 
colony.  The  meeting  place  of  the  company  was  not  mentioned 
in  the  charter,  but  it  was  soon  decided  that  it  should  be  in  Massa- 
chusetts, where  the  colony  was  to  be  established .  In  other  words, 
the  charter  was  to  be  taken  to  America,  and  the  government  of 
the  colony  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  colonists  themselves. 

The  Great  Emigration.  About  1630  began  the  "  Great  Emi- 
gration "  of  sturdy,  liberty-loving  Puritans  from  England  to 
the  shores  of  Massachusetts.  Besides  the  tyranny  of  the 
'X,  king  and  the  desire  to  worship  in  their  own  churches,  other 
causes  swelled  the  number  of  emigrants.  England  was  thought 
to  be  overcrowded  with  people;  so  much  so,  wrote  Win- 
throp,  that  "  children,  .  .  .  especially  if  they  be  poor,  are 
counted  the  greatest  burdens,  which  if  things  were  right  would 
be  the  chief  est  earthly  blessing.  Across  the  broad  Atlantic 
the  Lord  has  provided  a  whole  continent  for  the  use  of  man ; 
why  should  it  longer  lie  waste  without  any  improvement?  " 
The  Puritan  leader  in  this  enterprise,  now  elected  governor 
■I  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  was  John  Winthrop,  an 
ambitious,  scholarly  man,  who  also  had  good  business  ability. 
Winthrop  sailed  for  Massachusetts  in  1630,  with  eleven  ships 
and  nine  hundred  colonists.  After  some  exploration  of  the 
coast,  he  chose  Boston  as  the  site  for  the  Puritan  colony.  The 
first  winter  here,  like  that  earlier  one  at  Plymouth,  was  a  time 
of  intense  cold  and  suffering.  Before  December,  hunger  and 
exposure  had  claimed  two  hundred  of  their  number  as  victims. 
At  length  supplies  and  more  settlers  arrived  from  England, 
and  the  colony  began  to  prosper.  Nearly  four  thousand  people 
were  living  on  or  near  the  shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay  by 
1634.     Besides  Boston,  the  capital  of  the  colony,  there  were 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES 


87 


some  twenty  towns  or  villages,  including  Charlestown,  Dor- 
chester, Cambridge,  Roxbury,  Lynn,  and  Watertown. 

Government  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  The  colony  was 
ruled  at  first  by  Governor  Winthrop,  aided  by  his  deputy  and 
the  assistants.  As  the  number  of  people  and  settlements  in- 
creased, a  change  was  necessary  to  meet  new  conditions.  When 
a  tax  was  levied  for  a  fortification  at  Newtown,  the  inhabitants 
of  Watertown  refused  to  pay  their  share  on  the  ground  that  <^ 
they  were  not  represented  in 
the  General  Court.  As  a 
result  of  Watertown 's  pro- 
test,   it    was    decided    that 

each  settlement  should  send  ^^  jM  j 

two  representatives  or  dep- 
uties to  meet  with  the 
governor  and  his  assistants. 
The  deputies  and  assistants 
at  first  met  together,  as  a 
single  body.  But  the  depu- 
ties were  more  democratic 
than  the  assistants,  with 
whom  they  often  disagreed. 
Finally,  in  1644  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  deputies  and 
assistants  should  meet  sep- 
arately, as  an  upper  and  a 
lower  house  of  the  legisla- 
ture. This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  two-house  plan  now  followed  in  all  of  our  state  legis- 
latures, as  well  as  in  Congress. 

Local  Town  Government.  In  the  meeting  house  the 
people  came  together  both  to  worship  God  and  to  transact 
public  business.  Here,  as  at  Plymouth,  the  freemen  in  town 
meeting  decided  what  taxes  should  be  levied  and  by  whom 
paid ;  how  those  who .  broke  the  laws  should  be  punished ; 
together  with  many  other  matters  both  of  public  and  private 
concern.      The  town  meeting  elected  the  local  officers,   the 


John  Winthrop 

Portrait  by  Van  Dyck  in  the  State  House, 
Boston. 


88  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

selectmen  who  had  charge  of  the  general  business  of  the  town ; 
constables  to  keep  order ;  cowherds  to  take  the  cattle  to  the 
common  pasture ;  swineherds  to  drive  the  swine  to  their  feed- 

[  ~>  ing-place ;  a  pound  keeper  to  catch  stray  beasts  and  keep  them 
safe  until  claimed  by  the  owner,  —  a  man  for  each  simple  duty. 
s\  Three  things  should  be  remembered  concerning  the  town 
government  of  Massachusetts  :  (1)  It  was  democratic,  carried 
on  directly  by  the  people  themselves ;  (2)  it  regulated  every 
matter  of  local  concern ;  (3)  it  was  the  type  of  local  government 
copied  throughout  New  England,  and  afterwards  carried  into 
the  West  by  men  from  New  England. 

Religious  Intolerance.  Delegates  to  the  General  Court 
were  elected  by  the  freemen  who  belonged  to  the  Puritan 
churches,  lor  in  early  Massachusetts  only  church  members 
were  permitted  to  vote  or  hold  office.  Smarting  under  the  mem- 
ory of  their  recent  persecution,  the  Puritans  became  persecutors 

0H  in  turn.  Men  were  fined,  whipped,  or  banished  from  the  colony 
for  speaking  against  the  church  or  the  government.  These 
people  had  come  to  America  not  to  establish  a  colony  where 
every  one  might  worship  as  he  pleased,  but  to  found  a  Puritan 
state  of  which  the  Puritan  church  should  be  the  cornerstone. 
By  excluding  members  of  the  Church  of  England  from  their 
colony,  the  Massachusetts  Puritans  placed  themselves  in  con- 
flict with  King  Charles  and  his  advisers,  who  were  striving  to 
crush  Puritanism  at  home.  At  last  the  king  brought  matters 
to  a  climax.  His  judges  declared  the  Massachusetts  charter 
forfeited,  and  ordered  the  government  of  the  colony  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  king  himself.  The  decree  was  never  carried 
out.  The  Civil  War  in  England  between  Charles  I  and  his 
Parliament  saved  the  colony  from  the  loss  of  its  charter ;  and 
when  the  war  ended,  the  House  of  Stuart  no  longer  ruled 
England. 

The   Struggle  for  Freedom  of  Thought.     It  was  a  simple 

matter  to  provide  by  law  that  only  members  of  the  Puritan 

/church  should  have  a  voice  in  the  government  of  the  colony. 

^.  .  It  was  also  easy  to  punish  those  who  protested  against  this 
union  of  church  and  state.   What  the  Puritan  leaders  could  not 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES 


89 


do  was  to  prevent  men  from  thinking  and  saying  that  this 
union  of  church  and  state  was  wrong  and  unjust.  The  cause 
of  freedom  of  thought  found  two  famous  champions.  A  quick- 
witted Welshman,  Roger  Williams,  alarmed  the  elders  by  de- 
claring that  church  and  state  ought  to  be  separated,  that  no 
one  should  be  compelled  to  attend 
religious  services,  and  that  it  was  wrong 
to  require  unbelievers  to  swear  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  colony. 

Williams  had  spent  much  time  among 
the  Indians,  teaching  them  the  Word 
of  God.  He  said  that  the  soil  of  the 
New  World  belonged  to  them,  and  that 
the  settlers  could  obtain  a  valid  title 
to  it  only  by  purchase,  instead  of 
by  a  grant  from  the  king.  A  serious 
dispute  at  once  arose.  The  Puritan 
leaders  feared  that  the  king,  who  was 
already  inclined  to  take  away  their 
charter,  might  hear  of  this  bold  denial 
of  his  authority.  Williams  was  ordered 
to  return  to  England  in  1636 ;  but 
instead  of  obeying,  he  fled  to  the 
woods  and  took  refuge  with  his  Indian  friends.  Another  dis- 
senter, Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  was  likewise  teaching  new  re- 
ligious doctrines  and  boldly  criticizing  the  magistrates.  She, 
too,  was  banished. 

The  Founding  of  Rhode  Island,  1636.  Roger  Williams  made 
his  way  to  Narragansett  Bay,  at  the  head  of  which  he  founded 
Providence.  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her  followers  also  fled 
south,  and  purchased  from  the  Indians  the  island  which  bore 
the  name  of  Aquedneck.  Here  two  settlements  were  made, 
Portsmouth  and  Newport ;  while  the  town  of  Warwick  was 
founded  soon  afterwards.  Roger  Williams  secured  from  Par- 
liament a  patent  uniting  the  four  towns,  Providence,  Ports- 
mouth, Newport,  and  Warwick,  under  the  title  of  "  Providence 
Plantation  in  Narragansett  Bay  in  New  England/'     Rhode 


<m 


Roger  Williams 

Founder  and  President  of 
The  Providence  Plantations, 
1654-1657. 


? 


90  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

Island  grew  rapidly,  because  it  was  the  one  colony  in  New 
England  that  tolerated  every  form  of  religious  belief.  In  our 
colonial  history,  Rhode  Island  stands  for  freedom  of  thought,  a 
fact  commemorated  by  the  statue  in  the  city  of  Providence 
bearing  this  simple  inscription  :  "  Roger  Williams  —  Soul  Lib- 
erty, 1636." 

The  Founding  of  Connecticut.  By  this  time  many  people 
in  Massachusetts  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  undemocratic 
government  which  permitted  none  but  church  members  to  vote. 
Some  of  them  decided  to  leave  the  colony  and,  hearing  "  of 
the  fame  of  the  Conightecute  River,  they  had  a  hankering 
mind  after  it."  Windsor  and  Wethersfield  were  settled  by  the 
first  emigrants.  Next  the  whole  Newtown  congregation,  led 
by  its  pastor,  Thomas  Hooker,  moved  to  the  banks  of  the 
Connecticut  and  founded  Hartford.  Others  followed  until 
eight  hundred  people  were  living  in  the  three  settlements  of 
Windsor,  Hartford,  and  Wethersfield. 

These  towns  were  at  first  part  of  Massachusetts,  but  one 
day  Thomas  Hooker  delivered  an  eloquent  sermon  in  which  he 
said  that  the  consent  of  the  governed  is  necessary  in  every 
state.  Accordingly,  the  inhabitants  of  the  three  towns  met  at 
Hartford,  and  drew  up  a  document  creating  a  government 
of  their  own.  This  constitution  was  called  "  The  Fundamental 
Orders  of  Connecticut  " ;  it  is  the  first  example  in  our  history 
of  a  written  constitution  drawn  up  by  the  people  for  their 
own  government   (1639). 

The  New  Haven  Colony.  Another  colony  was  forming  on 
the  north  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound  while  the  Connecticut 
towns  were  having  their  beginnings.  A  group  of  London  Puritans 
reached  Boston  in  1637,  while  on  their  way  to  found  a  colony. 
The  Boston  settlers  gave  them  a  hearty  welcome,  but  the  new- 
comers wanted  to  have  a  colony  of  their  own.  They  found  a 
favorable  site  on  Long  Island  Sound,  and  established  the  colony 
of  New  Haven.  Its  government  was  based  on  a  strict  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures,  and  so  New  Haven  is  sometimes  called 
"the  Bible  Commonwealth."  None  but  church  members 
could  vote,  and  the  church  officials  were  the  magistrates  of 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND    COLONIES 


91 


The  New  England  Colonies 

the  colony.  Milford  and  Guilford  were  settled  in  1639,  and  the 
town  of  Stamford  was  begun  the  next  year.  These  towns  were 
afterwards  united  under  the  name  of  the  "  Colony  of  New 
Haven.' '  The  king  refused  to  grant  a  charter,  and  some  twenty 
years  later,  the  colony  was  joined  to  Connecticut. 

The  New  England  Confederation.  The  first  step  toward  a 
union  of  the  English  colonies  came  in  1643.  At  this  time  a 
threefold  danger  threatened  them :  the  hostility  of  the  Indians 
in  Connecticut,  the  spread  of  the  Dutch  settlements  along  the 
Hudson,  and  the  activities  of  the  French  fur  traders  on  the 
north.  At  last  four  of  the  New  England  colonies,  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  decided  to 
form  a  union  for  their  mutual  defense.     The  name  of  their 


92  COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

league  or  confederation  was  "  The  United  Colonies  of  New 
England."  Each  colony  was  to  control  its  own  domestic  affairs, 
as  before ;  but  a  board  of  eight  commissioners,  two  from  each 
colony,  was  to  have  charge  of  matters  that  concerned  them  all, 
such  as  carrying  on  war.  The  New  England  Confederation  is 
important  in  our  history  because  it  was  the  first  attempt  at 
union  among  the  colonies.  It  showed  them  the  value  of  acting 
together,  and  served  as  a  precedent  for  later  plans  of  colonial 
union.  The  Confederation  lasted  for  forty  years,  and  carried  the 
colonies  through  King  Philip's  War,  the  most  dangerous  Indian 
conflict  of  colonial  times. 

Indian  Wars  in  New  England.  The  first  serious  conflict 
between  the  white  settlers  of  New  England  and  the  Indian 
tribes  came  in  1634,  when  the  Pequots  of  Connecticut  went  on 
the  war  path.  This  uprising  ended  in  a  defeat  so  crushing  that 
the  Indians  were  quiet  for  the  next  forty  years.  But  at  length 
a  new  generation  of  Indians,  trained  in  the  use  of  firearms, 
determined  to  stop  the  steady  invasion  of  their  hunting  grounds. 
The  native  tribes  of  New  England  were  in  a  sad  plight.  The 
white  settlers  were  constantly  pressing  inland  from  the  sea- 
coast,  destroying  the  forests  and  killing  the  game;  while  the 
hostile  Iroquois  barred  the  gateway  to  the  interior  of  the 
continent. 

At  last  King  Philip,  chief  of  the  Wampanoag  Indians,  united 
the  tribes  of  southeastern  New  England  in  a  life  and  death 
struggle  against  the  colonists  (1675-1677).  It  was  a  war  of 
murder  and  pillage,  without  quarter  on  either  side.  Thirteen 
towns  were  burned  to  ashes,  growing  crops  were  destroyed  until 
famine  threatened  the  settlers,  and  one  tenth  of  New  England's 
fighting  men  were  slain.  In  the  end,  the  superior  training  of 
the  white  man  made  itself  felt.  King  Philip  was  killed,  his 
followers  were  hunted  down  without  mercy,  and  the  Indian 
power  in  New  England  was  broken  for  all  time. 

New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  The  Plymouth  Company, 
which  had  been  granted  the  New  England  coast  in  1607,  failed 
to  make  a  permanent  settlement.  This  territory  was  after- 
wards granted  to  a  new  company,  called  the  "  Council  for  New 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  93 

England."  The  principal  men  interested  were  Sir  Ferdinando 
Gorges  and  Captain  John  Mason.  The  Council  for  New  England 
did  little  by  way  of  settlement,  but  gave  most  of  its  land  to 
private  individuals.  In  this  way,  Gorges  and  Mason  were 
granted  the  territory  lying  between  the  Merrimac  and  Ken- 
nebec rivers.  These  two  landholders  divided  their  property 
in  1629.  Mason  took  the  territory  between  the  Merrimac  and 
Piscataqua  rivers,  which  he  named  New  Hampshire,  and 
Gorges  took  the  remainder,  which  he  called  Maine.  Massa- 
chusetts claimed  all  of  this  territory  under  her  charter,  and 
when  Gorges  died  she  promptly  annexed  the  Maine  settlements. 
New  Hampshire  was  peopled  largely  by  emigrants  from  neigh- 
boring colonies ;  and  upon  the  death  of  Mason,  it  was  also 
annexed  to  Massachusetts.  The  district  of  Maine  remained 
a  part  of  Massachusetts  throughout  the  colonial  period,  and 
even  after  the  formation  of  the  United  States ;  but  New  Hamp- 
shire became  a  separate  colony  in  1679,  and  was  independent 
of  Massachusetts  from  that  time  on. 

Charters  for  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  Connecticut 
had  been  almost  as  prompt  as  Virginia  in  acknowledging 
Charles  II  when  he  was  brought  back  to  rule  England  after 
Cromwell's  death.  On  the  other  hand,  New  Haven  had  offended 
the  king  by  sheltering  two  of  the  judges  who  had  condemned 
his  father  to  death.  Charles  II  punished  New  Haven  by  uniting 
it  with  Connecticut  under  a  charter  granted  to  that  colony  in 
1662.  About  the  same  time,  Roger  Williams  secured  a  charter 
for  Rhode  Island  which  provided  that  no  one  should  be  molested 
"  for  any  difference  in  opinion  in  matters  of  religion." 

The  Tyrannical  Rule  of  Andros.  When  James  II,  last  and 
worst  of  the  Stuart  kings,  came  to  the  throne,  he  determined  to 
do  away  with  the  free  governments  which  the  people  had 
created  in  New  England.  To  do  this  he  would  have  to  get 
control  of  the  colonial  charters.  The  courts  of  England  had 
already  declared  the  Massachusetts  charter  forfeited,  and  the 
king  planned  to  take  away  the  charters  of  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island.  As  the  first  step,  he  sent  over  Sir  Edmund  Andros 
to  act  as  governor  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  New  Hamp- 


94  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

shire,  and  Maine.  Soon  afterwards,  New  York  and  New  Jersey- 
were  placed  under  his  rule.  The  new  governor  ruled  with  a  high 
hand,  a  tyrant  in  America  just  as  King  James  was  trying  to  be 
in  England.  The  colonial  legislatures,  the  local  town  meetings, 
even  the  courts  were  abolished,  until  the  colonists  saw  them- 
selves without  any  control  over  their  government. 

Andros  next  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  charters  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut.  But  his  arbitrary  rule  was  cut  short, 
for  in  1689  the  news  came  that  James  II  had  been  driven  from 
his  throne.  The  people  of  Boston  at  once  rose  against  Andros, 
who  was  imprisoned,  then  sent  back  to  England.  So  the  English 
Revolution,  as  it  was  called,  proved  that  neither  the  king  nor 
his  governor  could  place  himself  above  the  law.  Most  of  the 
colonies  regained  their  old  charters,  but  Massachusetts  received 
a  new  one  which  made  it  a  royal  province.  The  governor  was 
to  be  appointed  by  the  king,  with  power  to  veto  any  measure 
not  to  his  liking.  Voters  were  no  longer  required  to  be  church 
members,  and  all  religious  sects  were  tolerated.  Plymouth 
and  Maine  were  annexed  to  Massachusetts,  which  was  governed 
under  this  charter  until  the  Revolution. 


REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  59-70. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  80-107. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  X-XV. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  chs.  II- 

III. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  chs.  XIV- 

XX  ;  II,  ch.  III. 
Tyler,  L.  G.,  England  in  America,  chs.  I  X-XV,  XIX. 


REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  New  England,  pp.  168-184. 
Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  25-30. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  IV-V. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  pp.  178-194. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES 


95 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Puritans  and  Pilgrims.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  Explorers  and 
Settlers,  pp.  127-144  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Patriots  and 
Statesmen,  I,  pp.  67-69,  83-86  ;  Moore,  Nina,  Pilgrims  and  Puritans, 
pp.  1-91. 

2.  Life  in  the  Plymouth  Colony.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  Explorers  and 
Settlers,  pp.  189-210  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  New  England, 
pp.  67-103  ;  Higginson,  T.  W.,  Book  of  American  Explorers,  ch. 
XIV  ;   Moore,  Nina,  Pilgrims  and  Puritans,  pp.  20-91,  115-152. 

3.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  Higginson,  T.  W.,  Book  of 
American  Explorers,  ch.  XV  ;  Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  pp. 
124-140. 

4.  Rhode  Island  and  Roger  Williams.  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making 
of  New  England,  pp.  194-203  ;  Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  146- 
150. 


Pine  Tree  Shillings 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE    MIDDLE    COLONIES 

The  Dutch  Colony  of  New  Netherland .  New  Netherland,  the 
territory  claimed  by  Holland  from  the  discoveries  of  Henry 
Hudson,  embraced  all  the  country  between  the  Delaware  and 
Connecticut  rivers.  France  and  England  also  laid  claim  to 
this  region ;  but  the  southward  advance  of  the  French  was 
checked  by  the  Iroquois  Indians,  while  the  struggling  New  Eng- 
land colonists  were  at  first  in  no  position  to  drive  out  the  Dutch 
fur  traders.  Holland  gave  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  New 
Netherland,  as  well  as  the  control  of  its  government,  to  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  a  commercial  company  more 
interested  in  the  fur  trade  than  in  building  up  a  permanent 
colony.  Peter  Minuit,  the  second  governor  sent  over  by  the 
company,  bought  the  island  of  Manhattan  from  the  Indians, 
and  built  Fort  Amsterdam  on  the  present  site  of  New  York 
City.  This  soon  became  an  important  trading  post,  as  well 
as  the  home  of  the  Dutch  governors  of  New  Netherland. 

From  the  first,  the  Dutch  were  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
powerful  Iroquois  Indians,  who  were  the  bitter  enemies  of  the 
French  because  of  their  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Champlain. 
This  friendship  had  far-reaching  results  in  American  history; 
for  when  the  English  afterwards  seized  New  Netherland,  they 
also  won  the  good  will  of  the  Iroquois.  These  warlike  tribes 
then  formed  a  living  barrier  between  the  English  settlements 
toward  the  south  and  the  French  of  the  St.  Lawrence  region. 

The  Patroon  System.  The  profitable  traffic  in  furs  brought 
many  traders  to  New  Netherland,  but  few  permanent  settlers. 
In  order  to  attract  a  farming  class  of  people,  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  finally  decided  to  establish  a  system  of  landed 
estates  called  patroonships.  Any  member  of  the  company 
who  would  bring  fifty  settlers  into  the  colony  was  to  be  given 
a  large  tract  of  land  along  the  Hudson  River,  each  estate  to 


THE    MIDDLE    COLONIES 


97 


be  sixteen  miles  in  length  if  only  one  bank  of  the  river  was 
taken,  or  eight  miles  long  if  both  banks  were  occupied.  The 
patroon  had  complete  control  over  his  estate  and  the  people 
living  on  it.  They  could 
not  hunt  or  fish  without 
his  consent ;  they  could 
not  weave  linen  or  cotton 
cloth ;  they  must  sell 
their  crops  to  the  pa- 
troon, and  grind  their 
grain  at  his  mill.  The4 
patroon  system  was 
modeled  on  the  plan  of 
landholding  that  pre- 
vailed in  Holland,  but 
it  did  not  prove  popular 
in  America.  In  Europe 
the  feudal  system  was 
dying;  it  could  not  be 
transplanted  to  the  soil 
of  the  New  World. 

Difficulties  of  the 
Dutch  Governors.  Un- 
like their  English  neigh- 
bors, the  people  of  New 
Netherland  had  no  con- 
trol over  their  govern- 
ment. They  elected  no 
local  officers,  nor  did 
they  choose  a  legislature 
to  help  make  the  laws. 
Instead,  all  powers  were  New  Netherland  and  New  Sweden 
exercised  by  the  governor  appointed  by  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company.  This  officer  held  himself  responsible,  not  to  the 
colonists,  but  to  the  directors  of  the  company.  The  rights  of 
man,  said  Peter  Stuyvesant,  were  nothing  to  him ;  he  was  the 
servant  of  the  West  India  Company. 


98 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


The  story  of  the  Dutch  governors  has  been  told  by  the 
matchless  genius  of  Washington  Irving  in  his  burlesque  history 
of  the  colony.  We  may  laugh  with  Irving  at  the  oddities  of  these 
rulers,  but  their  task  was  no  light  one.  During  Governor 
Kieft's  administration,  there  was  a  terrible  Indian  war  that 
lasted  for  five  years,  and  almost  destroyed  the  colony.  Then 
there  were  the  Swedes  on  the  Delaware  to  be  disposed  of. 

Not  to  be  outdone  in  the 
race  for  colonies,  Sweden  in 
1638  had  established  a  set- 
tlement at  Christina  on  the 
Delaware  River.  New  Swe- 
den, as  this  colony  was 
called,  was  located  on  terri- 
tory claimed  by  the  Dutch. 
In  1655  a  strong  expedition 
under  Governor  Stuyvesant 
easily  captured  Fort  Chris- 
tina, and  the  Swedish  settle- 
ments were  annexed  to  New 
Netherland. 

A  more  difficult  problem 
was  that  of  dealing  with  the 
English  colonies  to  the  east- 
ward. Settlers  from  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay  were 
peopling  the  fertile  Connecticut  Valley,  which  was  claimed  by 
the  Dutch  as  part  of  New  Netherland.  Peter  Stuyvesant  might 
bluster,  but  he  could  not  drive  out  these  English  as  he  had  done 
in  the  case  of  the  Swedes.  So  the  dispute  was  referred  to 
arbitrators,  who  decided  that  the  boundary  of  New  Netherland 
should  be  a  line  drawn  ten  miles  east  of  the  Hudson  River. 

England  Strikes  at  Holland's  Commercial  Power.  This 
division  gave  the  Connecticut  Valley  to  the  English ;  and  a  few 
years  later,  it  seemed  probable  that  the  rest  of  New  Netherland 
would  pass  into  their  hands  as  well.  About  this  time  England 
passed  a  Navigation  Act  aimed  at  the  Dutch  shipowners,  who 
then  carried  on  most  of  the  ocean  commerce  of  the  world.   The 


THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES  99 

Navigation  Act  declared  that  goods  imported  into  England  or 
her  colonies  must  be  carried  in  English  ships,  or  else  in  the 
ships  of  the  country  producing  the  goods.  This  measure  closed 
the  trade  of  the  English  colonies  to  Dutch  vessels,  and  promptly 
brought  on  war  between  England  and  her  former  friend  and 
ally,  Holland. 

Cromwell  sent  four  armed  vessels  across  the  Atlantic,  expect- 
ing to  secure  aid  from  the  English  colonies  for  an  attack  on  New 
Netherland.  Three  members  of  the  New  England  Confedera- 
tion, Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  were  eager  for 
war,  but  the  largest  colony  held  back.  Massachusetts  had  no 
quarrel  with  the  Dutch,  nor  was  she  inclined  to  recognize  the 
authority  of  Cromwell.  At  last  Massachusetts  gave  way,  but 
just  as  the  New  England  troops  were  ready  to  take  the  field, 
news  reached  Boston  of  the  peace  between  England  and 
Holland,  a  peace  that  saved  the  Dutch  colony  for  another  ten 
years. 

Governor  Stuyvesant  and  His  Despotic  Rule.  Meanwhile, 
the  people  of  New  Netherland  were  becoming  more  dissatisfied 
with  their  governor  than  ever.  Peter  Stuyvesant  was  a  man  of 
quick  temper,  who  believed  in  his  own  right  to  rule.  He  had 
lost  one  leg  in  war,  and  as  he  stumped  about  on  his  silver-banded 
wooden  one,  the  people  called  him  "  Old  Silver-Leg."  Stuy- 
vesant persecuted  those  who  questioned  his  acts ;  he  threatened 
to  hang  on  the  highest  tree  in  New  Netherland  any  man  who 
might  appeal  from  his  decisions  to  the  authorities  in  Holland. 
The  governor  was  equally  intolerant  in  the  matter  of  religion. 
He  would  permit  no  church  in  the  colony  except  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church ;  for  the  Lutherans  he  had  fines,  while  the 
Quakers  were  whipped,  tortured,  and  thrown  into  prison.  But 
in  New  Netherland  as  in  Massachusetts,  all  these  punishments 
were  of  no  avail ;  the  Quakers,  Independents,  and  Lutherans 
kept  on  worshiping  God  in  the  light  of  their  own  faith. 

An  empty  treasury  at  last  compelled  Governor  Stuyvesant 
to  pay  some  attention  to  the  wishes  of  the  people.  He  consented 
to  have  a  council  of  nine  men  to  advise  him  in  case  of  need.  This 
council  drew  up  a  petition  to  the  legislature  of  Holland,  asking 


100 


COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


3 


New  Amsterdam 

The  City  Hall  and  the  Great  Dock  at  the  southeastern  end  of  the  town. 

for  local  self-government  in  the  colony.  The  legislature  incorpo- 
rated New  Amsterdam  as  a  town,  but  its  burgomaster  and  other 
officers  were  appointed  by  the  governor,  so  the  people  gained 
little  by  their  remonstrance.  Another  complaint  of  the  colonists 
was  that  education  was  neglected.  In  answer  to  this  complaint, 
the  West  India  Company  agreed  that  a  school  might  be  estab- 
lished in  the  city  tavern  if  Stuyvesant  saw  no  objection.  The 
governor  probably  did  object,  for  the  children  were  never  taught 
there,  although  the  schoolmaster  asked  for  the  use  of  the  tavern 
on  the  ground  that  his  pupils  needed  a  schoolroom  which  could 
be  warmed  in  winter. 

The  Conquest  of  New  Netherland.  In  spite  of  England's 
attempt  to  cripple  Holland's  trade,  that  country  was  still  a 
commercial  rival  to  be  feared.  Hence,  soon  after  Charles  II 
became  king,  Parliament  passed  a  second  Navigation  Act.  This 
measure  closed  the  trade  of  the  English  colonies  to  foreign  ships. 
All  goods  intended  for  her  colonies  must  first  be  shipped  to 
England  and  landed  there,  in  order  that  English  merchants 
and  shipowners  might  have  their  profit  on  the  colonial  trade. 


THE   MIDDLE    COLONIES  101 

The  king's  brother,  James,  was  eager  for  war  with  Holland,  and 
his  wish  was  soon  gratified.  Even  before  the  war  began,  King 
Charles  granted  to  his  brother  the  whole  region  between  the 
Connecticut  River  and  the  Delaware ;  in  other  words,  he  pre- 
sented him  with  the  Dutch  colony  of  New  Netherland.  Colonel 
Richard  Nicolls  was  the  energetic  commander  sent  from  Eng- 
land to  make  good  this  grant.  His  little  fleet  of  three  warships 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1664,  and  suddenly  appeared  before 
Fort  Amsterdam. 

Governor  Stuyvesant  had  been  warned  of  his  danger,  but 
he  was  poorly  equipped  for  defense.  Fort  Amsterdam  had  only 
a  few  stone  cannon,  with  a  scant  supply  of  ammunition ;  more 
serious  still,  the  people  of  the  colony  would  not  fight  for  a 
government  in  which  they  had  no  voice.  The  English  com- 
mander sent  a  letter  to  Stuyvesant  demanding  the  surrender 
of  Fort  Amsterdam,  and  promising  liberal  terms.  In  a  rage, 
Governor  Stuyvesant  tore  the  letter  to  pieces,  saying :  "  I  had 
rather  be  carried  to  my  grave."  But  the  Dutch  burghers  and 
their  wives  crowded  into  the  council  room,  and  compelled  the 
governor  to  piece  together  the  fragments  of  the  letter  and  ac- 
cept its  terms.  A  white  flag  was  run  up  over  Fort  Amsterdam ; 
and  without  a  shot  fired  on  either  side,  the  Dutch  colony  of 
New  Netherland  became  the  English  colony  of  New  York. 
The  conquest  of  New  Netherland  removed  the  wedge  which  the 
Dutch  had  driven  between  the  New  England  colonies  and  Vir- 
ginia.^ The  English  were  now  in  control  of  the  whole  Atlantic 
coast  from  the  Spanish  settlements  in  Florida  northward  to 
the  French  outposts  on  the  St.  Croix  River. 

New  York  under  English  Rule.  Nicolls  became  the  first 
governor  of  New  York,  exercising  the  authority  vested  in  James, 
Duke  of  York,  as  proprietor  of  the  province.  Aided  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people,  he  drew  up  the  Duke's  Laws,  which 
provided  for  trial  by  jury,  for  freedom  of  worship,  and  for  the 
election  of  town  officers  by  the  landowners.  Later,  the  Duke 
of  York  became  King  James  II  of  England ;  and  scarcely  had 
he  been  crowned  king  before  he  took  away  the  liberties  that 
he    had    granted    as  duke.     New  York   was   annexed  to  the 


102  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

Dominion  of  New  England,  over  which  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was 
appointed  governor.  The  Church  of  England  was  made  the 
Established  Church  of  the  province,  and  no  schools  were  per- 
mitted except  those  licensed  by  this  church. 

The  people  submitted  to  the  tyranny  of  Andros  until  news 
came  of  the  "  Glorious  Revolution  "  that  drove  King  James  II 
out  of  England,  and  placed  William  and  Mary  of  Holland  on 
the  throne  (1688).  As  soon  as  these  tidings  reached  America, 
there  was  rebellion  on  all  sides  against  the  rule  of  Andros.  The 
overthrow  of  King  James  gave  the  colonists  more  control  over 
their  government.  The  new  rulers  permitted  them  to  elect  a 
popular  legislature,  and  from  this  time  on,  New  York  had  a 
permanent  representative  assembly. 

The  New  Jersey  Grant.  On  receiving  his  charter  for  the 
country  between  the  Connecticut  and  Delaware  rivers,  the 
Duke  of  York  presented  two  of  his  friends  with  a  large  portion 
of  his  new  domain.  The  lucky  proprietors  were  Sir  George 
Carteret  and  Lord  John  Berkeley,  a  brother  of  the  famous 
governor  of  Virginia.  Their  grant  included  the  territory  be- 
tween the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rivers,  named  New  Jersey  in 
honor  of  Sir  George  Carteret's  gallant  defense  of  the  Island  of 
Jersey  during  the  Civil  War  in  England.  To  encourage  settlers 
for  their  new  province,  the  proprietors  offered  land  on  liberal 
terms,  promising  the  colonists  freedom  of  worship  and  a  legis- 
lature of  their  own  choosing.  The  proprietors  also  granted 
two  hundred  acres  of  land  in  each  parish  for  the  support  of 
the  minister  chosen  by  the  settlers. 

The  Settlers  and  Their  Government.  Some  colonists  were 
living  in  New  Jersey  before  the  grant  was  made,  for  English 
and  Dutch  trading  centers  had  been  established  at  Bergen, 
Hoboken,  and  Weehawken.  Philip  Carteret,  a  cousin  of  the 
proprietor,  came  to  New  Jersey  as  governor  in  1665.  He  estab- 
lished Elizabethtown,  where  the  first  legislature  for  the  colony 
met  a  few  years  later.  Middletown  and  Newark  were  settled  by 
New  Englanders,  some  of  them  coming  from  the  colony  of 
New  Haven,  which  had  just  been  joined  to  Connecticut.  These 
New  Englanders  promptly  organized  a  town  government,  and 


THE   MIDDLE    COLONIES  103 

restricted  the  right  to  vote  to  members  of  the  Congregationalist 
Church. 

Lord  Berkeley  afterwards  sold  his  interest  in  the  colony  to  a 
group  of  Quakers,  one  of  whom  was  William  Penn.  The  Quakers 
bought  what  was  called  West  Jersey,  for  the  colony  was  now 
divided.  The  Quakers  founded  the  town  of  Burlington,  granted 
religious  toleration  to  all  settlers,  and  gave  them  the  right  to 
govern  themselves.  A  few  years  later,  East  Jersey  was  also 
purchased  by  William  Penn  and  twenty-three  others,  chiefly 
Quakers  and  Scotch  Presbyterians.  Large  numbers  of  both 
these  sects  now  sought  religious  freedom  in  New  Jersey.  The 
proprietors  surrendered  their  rights  to  the  crown  in  1702,  when 
East  and  West  Jersey  were  again  united  into  a  single  colony. 
From  this  time  on,  New  Jersey  was  a  royal  colony  with  a 
governor  and  council  appointed  by  the  king,  and  a  representa- 
tive assembly  chosen  by  the  people. 

The  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers.  One  of  the  new  religious 
sects  in  England  was  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers.  The 
founder  of  this  society  was  George  Fox,  the  son  of  a  weaver  in 
Leicestershire,  England.  His  converts,  nearly  all  people  of  the 
humbler  class,  were  soon  numbered  by  thousands.  The  Quakers 
believed  in  a  divine  "  inner  light,"  or  voice  of  God  speaking 
within,  their  own  hearts.  Their  worship  was  usually  conducted 
in  silence;  nevertheless,  any  one  was  free  to  speak,  for  they 
believed  that  all  their  members  were  sent  by  God  to  preach. 

In  religion  and  in  everyday  life,  the  Quakers  were  more 
democratic  than  the  Puritans  themselves.  They  regarded  all 
men  as  equal  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  believed  that  they  should 
be  equal  in  the  sight  of  men  as  well.  The  Quaker  dress  was 
simple  and  somber ;  their  speech  was  quaint,  for  they  addressed 
all  people,  kings  and  common  folks,  simply  as  "  Friend,"  or 
as  "  thee "  and  "thou."  "  Love  your  enemies"  was  the 
command  of  Christ,  a  command  that  the  Quakers  accepted 
literally.  They  held  all  warfare  wrong,  even  in  self-defense ; 
they  would  not  fight  themselves,  nor  would  they  contribute 
anything  to  the  support  of  soldiers.  "  Swear  not  at  all  "  was 
another  command  that  the  Quakers  understood  in  a  literal 


104 


COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


sense.  They  refused  to  take  an  oath  when  testifying  in  court ; 
worse  offense  still,  they  would  not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  king.  The  Quakers,  as  we  have  seen,  helped  to  settle  New 
Jersey ;  and  they  had  a  still  larger  share  in  building  up  the 
colony  of  Pennsylvania. 

William  Penn,  the  Great  Quaker  Leader.  The  founding  of 
Pennsylvania  was  the  work  of  William  Penn,  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  colonial  times.   His  father,  Admiral  William  Penn,  was  a 

distinguished  naval  officer 
and  a  close  friend  of  King 
Charles  II .  While  a  student 
at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
young  Penn  was  deeply 
moved  by  the  preaching  of 
a  Quaker  minister  named 
Thomas  Loe.  The  college 
authorities  thought  it  best 
to  send  him  home,  where- 
upon his  father  gave  him  a 
thrashing  and  turned  him 
out  of  doors.  At  last  re- 
lenting, the  Admiral  sent  his 
son  to  Paris,  hoping  that  in 
the  gayeties  of  the  French 
capital  he  would  forget 
his  Quaker  teachings.  Ap- 
parently the  Admiral's  plan  succeeded ;  but  at  a  later  time 
young  Penn  was  sent  to  Ireland  to  look  after  his  father's  proper- 
ties. It  happened  that  Thomas  Loe,  the  Quaker  preacher,  was 
also  in  Ireland  ;  and  one  day  Penn  heard  him  preach-  The  text 
was,  "  There  is  a  faith  which  overcometh  the  world,  and  there  is 
a  faith  which  is  overcome  by  the  world."  From  that  moment 
until  his  death,  William  Penn  was  a  Quaker. 

Returning  to  London,  Penn  wore  his  hat  in  his  father's 
presence,  called  him  "  thee "  and  "  thou,"  and  was  again 
turned  out  of  doors.  Before  his  death,  the  Admiral  became 
reconciled  to  his  son,  to  whom  he  left  a  considerable  fortune. 


Courtesy  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania. 

William  Penn 


THE    MIDDLE    COLONIES  .  105 

Penn  was  then  free  to  write  and  preach  in  defense  of  his  belief ; 
and  the  authorities  could  not  silence  him,  even  behind  prison 
walls.  Notwithstanding  his  Quaker  principles,  Penn,  like  his 
father,  was  a  warm  friend  both  of  Charles  II  and  of  the  Duke 
of  York.  The  story  is  told  that  one  day  when  William  Penn 
met  King  Charles,  the  king  removed  his  hat.  "Why  dost  thou 
remove  thy  hat,  Friend  Charles?  "  said  the  young  man.  "  Be- 
cause," said  the  king,  "  wherever  I  am,  it  is  customary  for 
only  one  to  remain  covered." 

Penn  Plans  to  Establish  a  Quaker  Colony.  The  Quakers 
were  bitterly  persecuted  in  England.  Their  doctrines  not  only 
ran  contrary  to  the  Established  Church,  but  they  were  a  menace 
to  monarchy  itself.  If  all  men  were  equal  in  the  sight  of  God, 
why  should  there  be  any  nobles  or  kings  ?  Because  of  this  perse- 
cution, William  Penn  at  last  decided  to  found  a  Quaker  colony 
in  the  New  World.  Admiral  Penn  had  loaned  King  Charles  a 
large  sum  of  money,  which  had  never  been  repaid.  Partly  on 
account  of  this  debt,  William  Penn  petitioned  the  king  for  a 
grant  of  land  in  America.  His  request  was  granted,  and  in 
1681  I^ing  Charles  issued  a  charter  that  made  Penn  proprietor 
of  forty  thousand  square  miles  in  America.  In  spite  of  Penn's 
protest,  the  king  insisted  on  naming  this  territory  Pennsylvania 
(Penn's  woods) .  Penn  himself  drew  up  the  charter,  which  pro- 
vided for  a  government  similar  to  that  of  Maryland. 

Just  as  the  Cavaliers  had  sought  refuge  in  Virginia  and  the 
Puritans  in  Massachusetts,  so  the  Quakers  now  flocked  to 
Pennsylvania.  In  order  to  encourage  emigration,  Penn  wrote  a 
pamphlet  describing  his  colony.  This  pamphlet  was  widely 
circulated  not  only  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  but  in 
Holland  and  Germany  as  well.  At  the  same  time,  Penn  wrote  a 
letter  to  the  people  who  had  already  settled  in  Pennsylvania, 
promising  them  that  they  should  be  governed  by  laws  of  their 
own  making. 

The  Founding  of  Pennsylvania,  1682.  In  1681  Penn  sent  his 
cousin  to  rule  as  deputy-governor  the  people  living  in  his  new 
domain.  In  the  following  year  he  himself  sailed  for  the  Delaware 
in  the  ship  Welcome  with  one  hundred  colonists,  most  of  whom 


106 


COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


3 


2 


were  Quakers.  Proceeding  up  the  river,  Penn  met  the  represent- 
atives of  the  people  at  Chester,  and  together  they  passed 
sixty-one  statutes,  known  as  the  Great  Law  of  Pennsylvania. 
These  laws  were  broad  and  liberal.  No  taxes  were  to  be  levied 
for  the  support  of  any  church,  and  no  man  was  to  be  persecuted 
for  his  religion.  Every  taxpayer  was  to  have  the  right  to  vote, 
but  only  those  professing  Jesus  Christ  could  hold  office.    There 


a 


7 


The  Penn  House 

Built  in  1684  south  of  Market  Street,  where  the  Provincial  Council  met. 
In  1882  the  house  was  moved  to  its  present  site  in  Fairmount  Park. 

was  to  be  no  labor  on  the  Sabbath  Day.  The  right  of  trial  by 
jury  was  established,  and  no  oath  was  to  be  required  in  giving 
testimony  in  court.  Ten  thousand  Quakers  had  tasted  the 
horrors  of  English  prisons ;  in  Pennsylvania,  prisons  were  to  be 
not  merely  jails,  but  places  of  reformation  where  useful  trades 
should  be  taught.  Only  two  crimes,  murder  and  treason,  were 
punished  by  death,  although  at  this  time  there  were  a  great 
many  capital  crimes  in  England. 


THE   MIDDLE    COLONIES  107 

The  City  of  Brotherly  Love.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  pro- 
prietor, the  settlers  had  set  aside  a  wide  area  for  a  city  be- 
tween the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware  rivers.  Here  Penn  laid  out 
the  capital  of  his  province,  naming  it  Philadelphia,  the  City  of 
Brotherly  Love.  A  weekly  post  was  established,  a  school  was 
opened,  and  a  printing  press  set  up.  Within  a  few  years,  Phila- 
delphia could  boast  a  tannery  and  saw  mill,  besides  a  brick  kiln, 
glass  factory,  and  other  industries.  Philadelphia  soon  outstripped 
New  York  in  population  and  wealth,  and  during  the  eighteenth 
century  became  the  leading  city  of  the  American  colonies. 

Perm's  Treaty  with  the  Indians.  Penn  treated  all  men  as 
brothers,  the  red  man  as  well  as  the  white.  He  determined  to 
deal  with  the  Indians  so  justly  that  they  would  not  disturb  his 
colonists.  There  is  a  well-founded  tradition  that  Penn  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Indian  chiefs  at  Shackamaxon,  now  Kensington, 
under  an  immense  elm  that  long  afterward  bore  the  name  of 
the  "  Treaty  Elm."  Certain  it  is  that  the  Quaker  leader  com- 
pletely won  the  hearts  of  these  simple  children  of  the  forest. 
Pledges  of  friendship  were  exchanged  between  Penn  and  the 
native  chiefs ;  it  was  agreed  that  "  the  Indians  and  English  must 
live  in  love  as  long  as  the  sun  gave  light.' '  The  Indians  pre- 
sented Penn  with  a  wampum  belt  in  which  were  woven  the 
figures  of  an  Indian  and  a  white  man  clasping  hands.  Penn's 
fair  treatment  of  the  natives,  and  the  fact  that  the  tribes  of 
this  region  had  just  been  subdued  by  the  Iroquois  and  were 
not  disposed  to  war,  prevented  Pennsylvania  from  having  any 
serious  Indian  troubles  for  many  years. 

The  Growth  of  Pennsylvania.  Penn  made  two  visits  to  his 
colony,  remaining  on  each  occasion  for  about  two  years.  Large 
numbers  of  settlers  were  arriving  from  Ireland  and  Germany, 
as  well  as  from  England  and  Wales.  The  colony  grew  so  rapidly 
that  Penn  could  write  in  1684  :  "I  have  led  the  greatest  colony 
into  America  that  ever  any  man  did  upon  a  private  credit." 
Pennsylvania  was  larger  than  New  York  by  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  and  was  outranked  in  population  only  by  Massa- 
chusetts and  Virginia.  Until  the  Revolution,  the  colony  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Penn  family  as  proprietors. 


108 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


The  charter  of  Pennsylvania  encroached  upon  the  domain 
of  Lord  Baltimore,  and  a  heated  boundary  quarrel  disturbed 
both  colonies  for  a  number  of  years.  This  dispute  was  not 
settled  until  about  ten  years  before  the  Revolution,  when  two 
English  surveyors,  Mason  and  Dixon,  fixed  a  definite  boundary 
line  between  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  Every  few  miles 
they  planted  a  stone  on  one  side  of  which  was  cut  the  coat  of 

arms  of  the  Baltimores,  on 
the  other  that  of  the  Penn 
family.  In  the  later  history 
of  our  country,  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line  became  famous 
as  the  dividing  line  between 
the  slave  and  the  free  states. 
Delaware  Becomes  an 
English  Colony.  The  coun- 
try around  the  Delaware 
River  was  claimed  by  the 
Dutch  from  the  voyage  of 
Henry  Hudson,  and  was 
considered  a  part  of  New 
Netherland.  In  1638,  the 
Swedes  planted  a  settlement 
near  the  present  site  of  Wil- 
mington. New  Sweden,  as 
their  colony  was  called,  was 
finally  seized  by  the  Dutch, 
and  afterwards  surrendered  to  England.  Soon  after  Penn  re- 
ceived his  charter,  he  persuaded  the  Duke  of  York  to  grant  him 
the  territory  now  known  as  the  state  of  Delaware  in  order  to 
give  his  own  colony  a  direct  outlet  to  the  ocean.  So  Delaware 
became  part  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  referred  to  as  the  "  lower 
counties."  This  union  was  very  displeasing  to  the  people  of 
Delaware.  Shortly  after  Penn's  second  visit,  they  obtained 
their  own  deputy-governor  and  assembly,  although  until  the 
Revolution  they  continued  to  have  the  same  governor  as  Penn- 
sylvania. 


Courtesy  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania. 

Hannah  Callowhill 

The  wife  of  William  Penn,  who  came  to  this 
countryon  Penn's  second  voyage,  1669. 


THE    MIDDLE    COLONIES  109 

Results  of  the  Colonizing  Movement.  England's  great 
colonizing  movement  during  the  seventeenth  century  was  not 
confined  to  the  mainland  of  North  America.  The  Bermuda 
Islands  were  occupied  by  one  of  the  early  expeditions  bound 
for  Virginia,  while  other  English  settlers  reached  the  Leeward 
Islands  a  few  years  after  the  Pilgrim  fathers  settled  Plymouth. 
The  Bahama  Islands  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
abandoned  them  for  the  richer  countries  of  South  America; 
and  English  Puritans  afterwards  came  to  the  islands.  In  1655 
England  seized  Jamaica,  another  Spanish  possession,  and  oc- 
cupied Barbados,  which  became  her  richest  and  most  populous 
American  colony  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Here  in  the 
West  Indies,  as  on  the  mainland  of  North  America,  France  was 
England's  chief  rival.  By  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  French  settlers  had  occupied  thirteen  islands  of  this 
group.  The  most  important  were  Guadeloupe,  Martinique, 
and   a  large  part  of  Santo  Domingo  or  Haiti,  which  France 


"  The  Treaty  not  Sworn  to  and  Never  Broken  " 

The  belt  of  wampum  given  to  William  Penn  by  the  Leni  Lenape  Sachems  at 
the  Elm  Tree  Treaty,  1682,  and  presented  by  his  great-grandson  Granville  John 
Penn  to  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania,  1857. 

wrested  from  Spain.  Even  little  Denmark  entered  the  race 
for  colonies,  and  planted  settlements  on  three  islands  of  the 
Leeward  group,  near  Porto  Rico.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  Russia 
held  Alaska  as  a  result  of  the  discoveries  of  Vitus  Bering ;  in 
the  North  Atlantic,  Denmark  claimed  the  colony  of  Greenland. 
On  the  mainland  of  North  America,  the  seizure  of  New 
Netherland  and  the  founding  of  Georgia  gave  England  an 
unbroken  chain  of  colonies  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine 


110  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 

to  Florida.  By  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Holland  and 
Sweden  had  been  forced  out  of  the  race  for  colonies  in  North 
America ;  while  on  the  south,  Spain  was  no  longer  a  rival  to  be 
feared.  In  the  future,  only  the  French  power  in  Canada  and 
west  of  the  Appalachians  could  threaten  England's  supremacy 
over  the  continent. 

REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  CM.,  Colonial  Self -Government,  chs.  IV- VIII,  XI- XII. 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  85-97. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  107-160. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs.  XVI-XIX ; 

II,  chs.  II,  VI-VII. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  chs.  XXII- 

XXVI  ;  II,  ch.  IV. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Dutch  in  New  Netherland.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  Explorers 
and  Settlers,  pp.  171-188  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  Virginia  and 
the  Middle  Colonies,  ch.  IV  ;  Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American 
History,  ch.  XIV  ;  Higginson,  T.  W.,  Book  of  American  Explorers, 
ch.  XIII  ;  Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  pp.  196-207. 

2.  William  Penn  and  Pennsylvania.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Colonists 
and  the  Revolution  (Century  Readings),  pp.  47-64  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  The 
Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle  Colonies,  pp.  188-219  ;  Gordy, 
W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  XV  ;  Hodges,  G.,  Wil- 
liam Penn  (Riverside  Biographical  Series)  ;  Long,  A.  W.,  American 
Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  13-15  ;  Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  pp.  215- 
217. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  A   CONTINENT 

France  and  England  as  Rivals  in  North  America.  At  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  France  claimed  a  vast  domain 
in  North  America.  New  France,  as  her  empire  was  called, 
included  Acadia  and  the  St.  Lawrence  region,  together  with 
the  country  surrounding  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  entire 
Mississippi  Basin.  The  English  colonies  occupied  the  narrow 
strip  of  coast  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Appalachians, 
these  mountains  forming  a  natural  barrier  to  westward  expan- 
sion. Although  British  America  was  much  smaller  than  New 
France,  it  was  held  more  securely.  The  Englishman  came 
with  his  family  to  establish  a  permanent  home  in  the  New 
World.  The  French  flag  was  carried  forward  over  vast  stretches 
of  territory  by  intrepid  explorers  like  La  Salle,  but  to  little 
avail.  Few  colonists  came  to  live  in  the  wide  domain  opened 
up  by  the  French  pathfinders ;  and  the  few  who  came  usually 
preferred  the  fur  trade  to  the  difficult  work  of  farming.  More- 
over, France  was  too  busy  with  wars  and  politics  in  Europe  to 
give  serious  attention  to  her  New  World  empire.  Both  France 
and  England  persecuted  dissenters  from  the  established  state 
religion.  But  while  England  winked  at  the  emigration  of 
Separatists,  Puritans,  and  Quakers,  France  forbade  the  Hugue- 
nots to  go  to  America,  where  they  would  have  greatly  aided 
her  task  of  empire  building. 

Lacking  permanent  settlers,  New  France  had  to  rely  on  a 
chain  of  rude  forts  with  small  garrisons  to  hold  back  the  steady 
westward  pressure  of  the  English  colonists.  If  it  came  to  war, 
there  was  a  long  line  of  communications  to  defend,  extending 
from  Quebec  at  the  north  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
the  Great  Lakes,  thence  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  fort  at 

111 


112  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

New  Orleans.  This  line  must  be  defended  by  troops  sent  from 
Canada  or  France,  for  settlers  were  few  throughout  all  this  vast 
region.  The  French  power  was  not  rooted  in  the  soil  as  in  the 
case  of  the  English  along  the  coast,  where  the  colonists  fought 
with  their  backs  toward  their  homes.  Another  advantage 
of  the  English  was  the  friendship  of  the  Iroquois  Indians,  who 
checked  the  southward  advance  of  the  French  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  region. 

Colonial  Wars  between  France  and  England.  England  and 
France  had  long  been  rivals  in  Europe;  and  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  found  each  nation  eager  to  extend  its 
domain  in  the  New  World.  The  English  wished  more  room 
in  the  center  of  the  continent  over  which  their  growing  colonies 
might  expand ;  while  the  French  wanted  the  Hudson  River 
Valley  in  order  to  have  an  outlet  from  the  St.  Lawrence  south- 
ward. This  would  cut  the  English  possessions  in  two,  and  go 
far  toward  expelling  them  from  the  continent.  The  issue  be- 
tween the  two  powers  was  decided  in  a  long  series  of  hard- 
fought  wars.  There  were  four  of  these  colonial  wars,  covering  a 
period  of  nearly  a  century  (1689-1763),  with  thirty  years  of 
actual  fighting.  The  first  three  were  little  more  than  border 
conflicts  so  far  as  America  was  concerned,  but  in  Europe  the 
fighting  was  on  a  much  larger  scale.  The  fourth  colonial  struggle, 
or  the  French  and  Indian  War,  is  known  in  European  history 
as  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763).  This  was  a  world-wide 
conflict  in  which  the  mastery  both  of  North  America  and  of 
Asia  was  decided. 

To  understand  the  campaigns  in  this  century-long  struggle 
for  North  America,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  there  were  then 
no  roads  along  which  opposing  armies  might  attack  each  other. 
There  were  many  trails  over  which  small  bands  of  Indians  or 
rangers  might  pass,  but  an  army  of  any  size  had  to  follow  one 
of  two  great  waterways.  One  of  these  ran  almost  due  north 
from  Albany  by  way  of  the  Hudson  River,  Lakes  George  and 
Champlain,  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  heart  of  Canada. 
The  second  route  also  started  from  Albany,  running  west  along 
the  Mohawk  River  to  Lake  Ontario.   Both  routes  lay  through  a 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  A   CONTINENT  113 

rugged,  forest-clad,  and  almost  unpeopled  wilderness.  Each 
was  interrupted  by  numerous  rapids  and  shallows,  around  which 
the  boats  had  to  be  carried.  So,  during  all  of  these  colonial  wars, 
it  was  not  so  much  a  question  of  how  to  fight  the  enemy,  as  of 
how  to  get  at  him. 

The  Contest  for  the  Ohio  Valley.  At  the  close  of  the  third 
colonial  war  in  1748,  both  France  and  Great  Britain  realized 
that  the  final  conflict  had  only  been  delayed.  The  French  still 
hoped  to  confine  their  rivals  to  the  region  east  of  the  Alleghenies ; 
but  the  English  colonies  had  become  much  stronger  than  New 
France  in  population  and  resources,  the  factors  that  were  to 
decide  the  question  of  supremacy.  In  moving  westward,  there 
were  two  natural  highways  which  the  English  colonists  might 
take.  One  was  through  the  Mohawk  Valley,  but  the  Iroquois 
or  Five  Nations  held  back  their  advance  in  this  direction. 
The  other  was  by  way  of  the  Potomac  River  into  the  Ohio 
Valley.  English  fur  traders  were  already  using  this  route,  and 
it  was  here  that  the  first  clash  came.  The  governor  of  Canada 
sent  an  expedition  to  take  possession  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  and 
to  warn  intruders  that  this  region  was  claimed  by  France. 
On  reaching  Lake  Erie,  the  explorers  carried  their  canoes 
overland  to  Chautauqua  Lake,  and  from  this  point  passed 
down  the  Allegheny  River  to  the  Ohio.  Wherever  they  saw 
English  fur  traders,  they  warned  them  to  leave  the  country, 
The  Frenchmen  passed  down  the  Ohio  River  until  they  came 
to  the  Great  Miami,  returning  to  Lake  Erie  by  way  of  the  Mau- 
mee  River. 

In  the  same  year  that  the  French  were  exploring  the  Ohio 
Valley,  some  Virginians  determined  to  plant  a  settlement  there. 
The  Ohio  Company,  as  their  organization  was  called,  secured 
from  the  king  the  grant  of  500,000  acres  of  land  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Ohio,  between  the  Monongahela  and  the  Kanawha 
rivers.  Christopher  Gist,  a  fur  trader,  was  sent  to  explore  the 
country  and  select  lands  for  the  company.  The  French  were 
alarmed  at  this  preparation  for  settlement  in  the  territory 
claimed  by  them.  Unless  they  could  keep  control  of  the  Ohio 
River,  their  communication  with  Louisiana  through  the  center 


114  COLONIZATION   OF  THE  NEW  WORLD 

of  the  continent  would  be  destroyed,  and  their  possessions  cut 
in  two.  The  governor  of  Canada,  Marquis  Duquesne,  was 
instructed  to  build  forts  along  the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  rivers, 
so  as  to  connect  the  St.  Lawrence  settlements  with  the  Missis- 
sippi. Governor  Duquesne  sent  an  expedition  which  landed  at 
Presque  Isle  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  where  the 
city  of  Erie  now  stands.  Fort  Le  Bceuf  was  built  on  a  northern 
tributary  of  the  Allegheny,  and  Fort  Venango  farther  toward 
the  south. 

Washington's  First  Public  Mission.  All  of  this  Ohio  Valley 
region  was  claimed  by  Virginia  under  her  charter  of  1609.  The 
governor  of  Virginia  determined  to  send  a  written  protest  to 
the  French,  warning  them  ,  that  they  were  trespassers,  and 
demanding  that  they  leave  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  man  chosen  by 
Governor  Dinwiddie  to  take  this  message  was  a  young  Virginia 
surveyor,  George  Washington.  Although  only  twenty-one 
years  of  age  when  chosen  for  this  mission,  Washington  had 
already  gained  a  reputation  for  courage,  fair-mindedness,  and 
military  capacity.  Accompanied  by  Christopher  Gist  and  six 
other  white  men,  he  made  his  way  through  the  wilderness  to 
Fort  Le  Bceuf,  near  the  southern  boundary  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  French  commander  sent  Dinwiddie's  letter  on  to  Governor 
Duquesne,  and  Washington  carried  back  a  reply  which  asserted 
that  the  king  of  France  owned  all  the  country  west  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains. 

The  French  and  Indian  War,  1756-1763.  Governor  Din- 
widdie decided  to  build  a  fort  at  the  forks  of  the  Ohio  River 
in  order  to  secure  this  natural  gateway  to  the  interior  of  the 
continent.  For  this  mission  he  again  chose  Colonel  George 
Washington,  who  was  to  command  a  force  of  Virginia  volunteers. 
Before  Washington  could  arrive,  the  French  came  down  the 
Allegheny  River  and  built  a  strong  fort  at  the  forks  of  the  Ohio, 
naming  it  Fort  Duquesne.  Washington  reached  Great  Meadows, 
a  spot  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghenies,  before  the 
French  blocked  his  advance.  He  threw  up  a  rude  fortification 
called  Fort  Necessity,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  to 
superior  numbers  on  July  4,  1754.   This  engagement  was  really 


By  this  system  of  Indian  "  carries  "  or  portages  over  the  watershed  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  French  were  able  to  keep  open 
the  military  communications  in  the  great  expanse  of  Louisiana. 


115 


116  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

the  beginning  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  although  war 
was  not  actually  declared  until  two  years  later. 

Advantages  and  Weaknesses  of  Each  Combatant.  In  this 
final  struggle  for  the  continent  of  North  America,  the  French 
had  some  advantages  over  the  British.  Canada  was  defended 
by  a  considerable  force  of  trained  soldiers,  including  regiments 
famous  throughout  Europe  for  their  valor.  Moreover ;  the  gover- 
nor of  Canada  had  power  to  enlist  in  the  defense  of  his  country 
every  man  capable  of  bearing  arms.  In  border  warfare  the 
French  had  trained  themselves  to  fight  alongside  the  Indians. 
To  offset  the  fact  that  a  large  amount  of  territory  had  to  be 
defended,  the  French  possessed  two  of  the  strongest  fortresses 
in  North  America.  These  were  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton 
Island,  and  the  impregnable  cliff  of  Quebec.  The  French 
settlements  in  America  were  united  under  a  single  governor, 
but  this  gain  was  offset  by  the  fact  that  there  was  no  such  thing 
as  self-government  throughout  New  France.  As  a  result,  the 
French  colonists  relied  on  the  mother  country  in  all  things, 
rather  than  upon  their  own  resources.  Even  when  a  British 
army  was  battering  the  gates  of  Quebec,  the  Canadians  looked 
for  defense  to  the  trained  regiments  from  France,  while  their 
own  militia  fled  in  confusion  at  the  first  volley. 

In  marked  contrast  with  the  centralized  empire  of  New 
France,  the  thirteen  English  colonies  had  their  separate  gov- 
ernments, each  jealous  and  distrustful  of  its  neighbor.  The 
New  England  colonists  were  suspicious  of  the  New  Yorkers, 
and  the  feeling  was  fully  returned  in  kind.  Pennsylvania 
thought  it  hardly  worth  while  to  fight  for  the  Ohio  Valley  if 
the  country  were  to  belong  to  Virginia  under  her  sea-to-sea 
charter;  while  the  southern  colonies,  knowing  that  they  were 
in  no  danger  of  attack,  at  first  refused  to  send  any  troops  at  all. 
Moreover,  the  British  generals  made  no  effort  to  disguise  their 
contempt  for  the  colonial  troops  and  officers,  a  fact  that  did 
not  promote  harmony.  Leading  men  among  the  colonists  knew 
only  too  well  the  cause  of  their  weakness.  Reporting  the 
seizure  of  Fort  Duquesne  in  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  added  an  illustration  of  a  rattlesnake  cut  into 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  A  CONTINENT  117 

pieces,  below  which  appeared  his  famous  motto,  "  Unite  or 
Die." 

The  Albany  Plan  of  Union,  1754.  Realizing  that  war  was 
at  hand,  the  British  government  instructed  the  colonial 
governors  to  send  commissioners  to  Albany  with  power  to 
make  a  treaty  with  the  Iroquois,  and  secure  their  aid  if  possible. 
Delegates  were  present  from  seven  colonies ;  and  they  discussed 
not  only  Indian  affairs,  but  also  the  possibility  of  uniting  all 
the  colonies  in  a  league  for  common  defense.  The  "  Albany 
Plan  of  Union  "  was  drawn  up  by  one  of  Pennsylvania's  dele- 
gates, Benjamin  Franklin.  His  plan  provided  for  a  president- 
general  appointed  by  the  king,  and  an  annual  council  of  delegates 
elected  by  the  colonial  assemblies.  The  Albany  Plan  did  not 
meet  with  favor  outside  of  the  congress  that  adopted  it.  Re- 
membering Sir  Edmund  Andros,  the  colonists  did  not  like  the 
idea  of  a  president-general  appointed  by  the  king ;  while  the 
British  government  was  not  in  favor  of  a  council  chosen  by 
the  colonies.  Although  the  plan  was  dropped,  its  proposal 
showed  that  the  colonists  were  beginning  to  realize  the  need  of 
some  kind  of  union. 

Braddock's  Defeat  at  Fort  Duquesne.  The  beginning  of  the 
war  saw  the  French  in  possession  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  and 
occupying  a  strongly  fortified  position  along  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  Against  these  points  the  British  began  active  military 
measures  immediately  after  Washington's  defeat  at  Fort 
Necessity.  General  Braddock  was  sent  to  America  as  the 
British  commander  in  chief.  He  met  the  colonial  governors  at 
Alexandria,  and  a  threefold  plan  of  campaign  was  agreed  upon. 
(1)  The  entrance  to  the  interior  of  the  continent  was  to  be 
secured  by  taking  Fort  Duquesne.  (2)  An  expedition  of  New 
York  volunteers  and  Iroquois  Indians  was  to  attack  Crown 
Point  and  Niagara.  (3)  A  colonial  army,  aided  by  a  British 
naval  force,  was  to  attack  the  French  posts  in  Acadia. 

General  Braddock,  a  veteran  of  proven  courage  but  a  bigot 
to  military  rules,  reserved  to  himself  the  task  of  taking  Fort 
Duquesne.  Braddock's  regulars  were  reinforced  by  Virginia 
militia  under  Colonel  Washington,  giving  him  a  force  of  about 


118 


COLONIZATION   OP  THE   NEW  WORLD 


The  Ohio  Valley  Country 
Washington's  Mission  to  Ft.  Le  Bceuf  and  Braddock's  Expedition. 

1400  men.  Sturdy  axmen  hewed  a  road  for  his  army  through 
the  unbroken  forests  from  Virginia  to  Fort  Cumberland,  then 
across  Pennsylvania  toward  the  forks  of  the  Ohio  River. 
Braddock's  army  was  within  eight  miles  of  Fort  Duquesne, 
when  there  was  a  sudden  attack.    Hidden  in  the  dense  woods, 


T^E  STRUGGLE   FOR  A  CONTINENT  119 

the  French  and  Indians  poured  a  deadly  fire  upon  the  brilliant 
mark  afforded  by  the  red-coated  British  troops.  Braddock 
refused  to  listen  to  the  advice  of  Washington  and  the  colonial 
officers,  who  urged  him  to  let  the  men  break  ranks,  form  a 
skirmish  line,  and  fight  in  frontier  fashion.  Attacked  on  three 
sides,  the  British  force  was  almost  annihilated.  In  vain  Brad- 
dock  strove  to  rally  his  defeated  forces.  Five  horses  were  shot 
under  him ;  and  as  he  lay  dying,  he  exclaimed :  "  We  shall 
know  better  how  to  do  it  next  time."  Only  the  Virginia  militia 
stood  fast,  and  despite  the  loss  of  four  fifths  of  their  number, 
covered  the  retreat  of  the  wreck  of  the  army. 

Braddock's  defeat  convinced  the  Indians  that  the  French 
were  to  be  the  victors  in  the  coming  struggle,  and  it  left  the 
frontiers  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  open  to  their  raids  and 
massacres.  To  defend  this  back  door  of  the  colonies,  Wash- 
ington raised  a  small  force  of  Virginians,  and  built  blockhouses 
near  the  principal  mountain  passes.  His  skill  in  defending 
the  border  during  the  following  three  years,  and  his  valor  at 
Fort  Duquesne,  gave  him  a  reputation  as  the  ablest  colonial 
officer  in  America. 

Expulsion  of  the  Acadians.  For  forty  years  the  British  had 
been  in  possession  of  Acadia,  which  they  called  Nova  Scotia ;  but 
except  for  their  stronghold  at  Halifax,  they  had  little  control 
over  the  province.  The  French  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula 
refused  to  recognize  the  British  as  their  rulers,  so  that  the 
situation  was  full  of  danger.  If  the  British  weakened  their 
garrison  at  Halifax  in  order  to  attack  Louisburg,  the  Acadians 
might  rise  in  revolt,  and  drive  them  from  the  peninsula.  To 
avert  this  danger,  the  British  commander  decided  to  seize  the 
Acadians,  place  them  on  transports,  and  distribute  them 
throughout  the  English  colonies  to  the  southward.  In  this 
way  nearly  seven  thousand  Acadians  were  exiled  from  the  land 
of  their  birth  for  no  fault  except  their  refusal  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  In  the  confusion  that  marked  the  tragic  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Acadians,  their  goods  were  lost  and  many  families 
separated,  incidents  that  gave  Longfellow  the  suggestion  for 
his  beautiful  poem  Evangeline, 


120 


COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


William  Pitt  Becomes  Prime  Minister.  In  spite  of  all  the 
fighting  in  America  up  to  this  time,  Great  Britain  and  France 
were  still  outwardly  at  peace.   But  in  1756  Great  Britain  joined 

with  Prussia  against  Austria, 
France,  and  Russia  in  the 
terrible  European  struggle 
known  as  the  Seven  Years' 
War.  France  won  the  first 
victories  in  America.  A 
great  French  general,  the 
Marquis  de  Montcalm,  took 
Fort  William  Henry  at 
the  southern  end  of  Lake 
George,  and  captured  Os- 
wego. In  this  hour  of 
gloom,  Great  Britain  turned 
to  the  man  who  was  to  give 
her  victories  in  place  of  de- 
feat. William  Pitt  was  ap- 
pointed prime  minister,  a 
position  which  he  held  for 
the  next  four  years.  Fear- 
less of  criticism,  Pitt  had 
the  valuable  gift  of  judging 
men.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  turn  out  the  bunglers  who  were 
responsible  for  Britain's  military  disasters.  Pitt  wanted  generals 
who  could  win  battles,  regardless  of  their  years  of  service  or 
station  in  life.  The  British  had  been  content  up  to  this  time 
simply  to  hold  back  the  French.  Pitt  changed  this  policy ;  his 
bold  imagination  conceived  the  plan  of  driving  them  from  the 
continent.  Hereafter,  it  was  to  be  an  offensive,  rather  than  a 
defensive  war.  Under  Pitt's  direction,  fleets,  troops,  and  sup- 
plies were  dispatched  to  the  New  World ;  and  soon  all  America 
was  aglow  with  military  enthusiasm. 

The  Capture  of  Louisburg  and  of  Fort  Duquesne,  1758.  The 
first  result  of  the  new  policy  was  the  capture  of  Louisburg 
by  Generals  Amherst  and  Wolfe,  aided  by  a  powerful  fleet. 


Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  Montcalm, 
Commander  in   Chief   of   the   French 
Army  in  America 

From  an  engraving  by  Sergent,  1790, 
in  the  Emmett  Collection,  New  York 
Public  Library. 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  A   CONTINENT 


121 


The  fall  of  this  fortress  made  it  possible  for  the  British  fleet 
to  block  the  entrance  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  An  advance 
was  also  to  be  made  through  Lakes  George  and  Champlain, 
but  this  failed  because  of  the  crushing  defeat  that  Montcalm 
inflicted  on  the  British  at  Ticonderoga.  In  the  same  year,  a 
force  of  regulars  and  colonial  troops  captured  Fort  Duquesne, 
which  was  renamed  Fort  Pitt  in  honor  of  England's  great 
statesman. 

The  Attack  on  Quebec.  Pitt  next  planned  a  twofold  cam- 
paign against  Quebec,  the  stronghold  of  French  power  in 
America.  General  Amherst  was  to  capture  Fort  Niagara,  then 
advance  northward  along  the  Champlain  route  against  Quebec. 
His  army  was  to  cooperate 
with  that  of  General  Wolfe, 
who  was  to  move  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  from  the  sea. 
Amherst  captured  Niagara, 
and  soon  afterwards  occu- 
pied Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point ;  but  he  was  unable 
to  advance  beyond  the  en- 
trance of  the  Richelieu 
River. 

Thus  the  attack  upon  Que- 
bec fell  solely  upon  Wolfe. 
Although  only  thirty-two 
years  of  age,  he  had  been 
chosen  by  Pitt  as  the  one  man 
best  fitted  to  command  the 
expedition.  Slight  in  frame 
and  feeble  in  health,  Wolfe's 
spirit  was  heroic,  his  en- 
thusiasm as  boundless  as 
that  of  Pitt  himself.  The  fleet  bearing  Wolfe's  army  entered  the 
St.  Lawrence  in  June,  1759,  and  anchored  off  the  island  of 
Orleans,  a  few  miles  above  Quebec.  Situated  at  the  top  of  a  cliff 
two  hundred  feet  above  the  water,  the  fortress  was  thought  to  be 


James  Wolfe 

From  an  engraving  by  Richard  A. 
Muller  in  the  Emmett  Collection,  New 
York  Public  Library,  after  Gains- 
borough's portrait. 


122 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


impregnable.  Wolfe  destroyed  that  part  of  the  town  around 
the  base  of  the  cliff,  but  the  summer  wore  away  with  nothing 
accomplished  toward  taking  the  citadel.  After  an  unsuccessful 
attack  near  the  Falls  of  Montmorency  below  Quebec,  Wolfe 
changed  his  plan  of  action.  He  determined  on  an  attack  above 
the  city  where  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  high  and  steep, 
but  broken  here  and  there  by  ravines.  By  climbing  one  of  these 
ravines  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above  Quebec,  Wolfe  hoped  to 

place  his  army  on 
the  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham. From  there 
he  could  bombard 
the  fortress,  or  force 
Montcalm  into  a 
decisive  battle. 

The  Battle  on 
the  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham, September 
13,  1759.  On  a 
moonless  night  in 
September,  Wolfe 
with  four  thousand 
men  rowed  stealth- 
ily up  the  St. 
Lawrence,  landing 
near  the  ravine 
called  the  Anse  du 
Foulon.  Here  the 
daring  attempt  was 
to  be  made.  At 
the  top  of  the  ravine 
was  a  French  post  of  only  two  hundred  soldiers,  for  Montcalm 
did  not  expect  an  attack  at  so  difficult  a  point.  Just  before 
dawn  the  twenty-four  volunteers  who  formed  the  vanguard  of 
the  British  force  scrambled  up  the  almost  impassable  cliff,  easily 
routing  the  French  soldiers,  who  had  not  even  placed  a  sentry 
there.   The  ravine  once  held,  it  was  an  easy  matter  for  Wolfe's 


Monument  Erected  in  1827  to  the  Memory  of 
Wolfe  and  Montcalm  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham 


THE   STRUGGLE  FOR  A  CONTINENT 


123 


The  Middle  Colonies  During  the  French  and  Indian  War. 

The  dotted  line  marks  the  extent  of  French  territory  previous  to  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war. 

little  army  to  gain  a  position  on  the  plains  above.  Thinking 
that  only  a  part  of  the  enemy's  army  was  before  him,  Montcalm 
ordered  an  immediate  attack.  The  battle  was  short,  but  fiercely 
contested.  Montcalm's  regulars  fought  bravely,  but  the  French 
line  first  wavered,  then  broke  before  the  deadly  fire  of  the 
British.  Carried  away  in  the  rush  of  fugitives,  Montcalm  him- 
self was  mortally  wounded.  When  told  that  he  had  but  a  few 
hours  to  live,  he  replied,  "  So  much  the  better,  I  am  happy 
that  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec."  Wolfe 
was  twice  wounded,  but  was  still  leading  the  charge  when  a 
third  bullet  cut  him  down  in  the  hour  of  victory.    His  dying 


124  COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

words  were :  "  Now  God  be  praised !  I  shall  die  in  peace." 
The  great  fortress  of  Quebec  was  surrendered  a  few  days  later ; 
and  with  the  conquest  of  Montreal  the  next  year,  Great  Britain 
held  Canada  with  all  its  dependencies. 

Results  of  the  War.  France  was  exhausted  and  anxious  for 
peace.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  signed  in  1763,  she  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  not  only  Canada,  but  all  of  the  disputed  territory 
between  the  Appalachians  and  the  Mississippi,  except  New 
Orleans  and  a  small  adjacent  district.  Spain,  the  luckless  ally 
of  France,  was  obliged  to  cede  Florida  to  the  British,  but  was 
allowed  to  recover  Cuba  and  the  Philippines,  which  had  been 
seized  by  Great  Britain  during  the  war.  On  the  day  when  the 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  France  made  a  secret 
agreement  with  Spain  by  which  she  gave  her  New  Orleans, 
together  with  all  the  territory  known  as  Louisiana  stretching 
westward  from  the  Mississippi  River.  Great  Britain  restored 
to  France  some  of  the  sugar  islands  in  the  West  Indies  which 
she  had  captured,  and  granted  French  fishermen  the  right 
to  fish  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland. In  Africa,  France  ceded  Senegal,  while  in  India 
she  lost  another  empire. 

The  Treaty  of  Paris  left  Great  Britain  beyond  all  dispute 
the  greatest  of  maritime  and  colonial  powers.  Portugal  and 
Holland,  her  earlier  rivals,  had  long  since  fallen  hopelessly  be- 
hind ;  and  by  this  treaty  France  and  Spain  were  swept  from  her 
path.  Great  Britain  was  now  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  all  the 
world  was  open  to  her  merchants,  explorers,  and  colonists.  To 
the  English  colonists,  the  treaty  meant  that  the  whole  interior 
of  the  continent  was  thrown  open  to  the  growing  population 
which  had  been  confined  to  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Appalachian 
barrier.  It  meant,  too,  the  removal  of  the  menace  of  French 
power  toward  the  north,  leaving  the  colonies  less  dependent 
upon  Great  Britain  for  defense  against  a  common  foe.  It  was 
settled  that  Anglo-Saxon  ideals  and  institutions  were  to  prevail 
throughout  North  America;  and  to  the  colonists  this  was  the 
most  important  result  of  the  war.  The  government  of  New 
France  was  a  despotic  and  paternal  government,  with  all  of  its 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  A   CONTINENT  125 

powers  proceeding  from  the  king.  There  was  no  trial  by  jury, 
there  were  no  town  meetings,  no  representative  assemblies  to 
help  make  the  laws.  Had  France  won  the  war,  her  system  of 
colonial  government  would  have  been  extended  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  continent.  It  would  have  been  impossible 
for  the  English  colonists,  in  their  narrow  space  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  to  develop  into  the  great  nation  of  to-day  whose  ideals 
have  always  been  those  of  liberty  and  self-government. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  111-132. 
Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  pp.  134-160. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  chs.  V-XIX. 
Greene,  E.  B.,  Provincial  America,  chs.  VII- X. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  II,  chs.  XVIII- 

XX. 
Howard,  G.  E.,   Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution  (American  Nation 

Series),  ch.  I. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.,  France  in  America  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 

VI- XVII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  English  and  French  in  North  America.  Morse,  E.  W., 
Causes  and  Effects  in  American  History,  ch.  IV  ;  Sloane,  W.  M., 
French  War  and  the  Revolution,  ch.  III. 

2.  Campaigns  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Sloane,  W.  M., 
The  French  War  and  the  Revolution,  chs.  IV-IX. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Baldwin,  J.,  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  1-149. 

Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  XXII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Patriots  and  Statesmen,  I,  pp.  224-226. 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  French  Pathfinders  in*North  America,  chs.  VIII-IX. 

Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  30-33. 

Parkman,  Francis,  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  301-459. 


CHAPTER  XI 
LIFE   IN   COLONIAL  TIMES 

Population  and  Immigration.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  about  two  million  people  were  living  in 
the  thirteen  British  colonies  scattered  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  Virginia  ranked  first  in  population,  with  three 
hundred  fifty  thousand  people ;  while  next  in  order  came 
Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania.  Of  our  large  cities  of  to-day, 
Philadelphia  and  Boston  each  had  a  population  of  twenty-five 
thousand  in  1760,  while  New  York  had  only  one  half  that  num- 
ber. The  New  England  colonists  were  nearly  all  of  English 
stock,  as  were  most  of  the  settlers  in  Maryland,  Virginia, 
and  the  Carolinas.  In  the  Middle  Colonies,  there  were  many 
Dutch,  Swedes,  Germans,  and  Scotch-Irish.  However,  all  of 
the  colonies  were  so  thoroughly  English  that  settlers  of  a 
different  nationality  were  regarded  as  foreigners.  During  the 
eighteenth  century,  more  of  these  foreigners  came  to  the 
colonies  than  ever  before.  Many  of  them  fled  from  religious 
persecution  at  home;  while  others  sought  refuge  in  the  New 
World  from  the  wars  and  oppressive  conditions  in  Europe, 
where  the  land  was  owned  by  a  few  people,  and  the  laborers 
were  little  better  than  serfs. 

After  the  failure  of  the  rebellions  of  1715  and  1745,  many 
Scotch  Highlanders  came  to  the  colonies,  large  numbers  of 
them  settling  in  North  Carolina.  There  were  also  many  Scotch- 
Irish,  or  people  whose  ancestors  originally  lived  in  Scotland, 
but  who  afterwards  moved  to  the  northern  part  of  Ireland.  The 
Scotch-Irish  settled  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas.  They  were  sturdy  backwoodsmen, 
living  in  log  cabins  and  cultivating  their  small  farms  without 

126 


LIFE   IN   COLONIAL  TIMES  127 

the  aid  of  slaves.  There  were  French  Protestants  or  Huguenots 
in  all  the  colonies,  especially  in  South  Carolina.  But  the  most 
numerous  class  of  foreigners  were  the  Germans  from  the  Rhine 
Valley.  The  great  German  migration  to  the  colonies  began 
about  1717,  and  continued  until  the  Revolution.  There  were 
two  chief  causes  for  this  movement.  The  Rhine  country  had 
been  so  devastated  by  wars  that  its  people  were  almost  com- 
pelled to  find  new  homes.  Moreover,  in  their  own  country 
the  German  peasants  could  not  hope  to  rise  above  the  condition 
in  which  they  were  born ;  while  in  the  New  World  they  could 
obtain  free  land,  and  might  become  wealthy  farmers. 

Establishment  of  Towns  in  New  England.  For  a  number  of 
reasons,  the  first  New  England  colonists  settled  in  small  com- 
munities known  as  towns,  instead  of  scattering  over  larger 
areas.  Most  of  the  New  Englanders  were  Puritans  in  religion, 
and  their  first  settlements  were  made  by  church  congregations, 
each  headed  by  its  minister.  Hence  they  naturally  wished  to 
have  their  homes  near  together  so  that  all  might  worship  at 
the  common  church.  The  economic  conditions  also  favored  the 
development  of  towns.  The  New  England  coast  is  indented 
by  many  bays  and  harbors ;  the  rivers  are  generally  rapid  and 
unfit  for  navigation  ;  the  stony  soil  is  not  adapted  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  large  estates.  Hence  many  of  the  people  settled  on  small 
farms,  raising  little  more  produce  than  they  themselves  needed ; 
while  others  engaged  in  commerce  and  fisheries,  which  likewise 
favored  close  settlement.  Moreover,  the  Indian  tribes  were 
likely  to  be  hostile,  and  it  was  easier  to  defend  a  compact 
community  against  their  raids.  Frequently  each  little  town 
was  surrounded  by  a  stockade,  and  provided  with  a  blockhouse 
in  which  the  people  could  take  refuge  in  case  of  sudden  attack. 
The  town  included  not  only  the  group  of  dwellings  within  the 
stockade,  but  also  the  outlying  fields  cultivated  by  the  colonists. 

Hence  the  word  "  town  "  as  used  in  New  England  does  not 
mean  a  small  village,  but  a  district  with  an  area  of  from  twenty 
to  forty  square  miles.  In  the  center  of  this  district  was  the 
meeting  house,  the  town  hall,  the  village  store,  the  inn,  and  the 
schoolhouse.   The  people  lived  close  together,  and  were  sociable 


./5 


128  COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

and  friendly.  There  were  few  slaves  in  New  England,  for  both 
climate  and  industry  were  unfavorable  to  negro  labor ;  and  the 
absence  of  a  slaveholding  class  helped  to  make  life  more  demo- 
cratic. The  government  of  the  town  was  a  pure  democracy; 
that  is,  local  laws  and  regulations  were  made  by  the  people 
themselves,  instead  of  by  their  representatives.  The  men  met 
in  town  meeting  for  the  discussion  of  matters  of  common 
concern,  such  as  the  defense  of  the  community,  the  construction 
of  roads,  the  support  of  the  school,  and  the  care  of  the  poor. 
On  these  and  many  other  matters,  the  town  meeting  made  laws 
called  bylaws ;  it  also  levied  taxes  and  elected  the  town  officers. 
Life  in  the  Southern  Colonies.  Conditions  in  the  southern 
colonies  were  quite  different.  The  men  who  came  to  Virginia 
did  not  come  as  church  congregations  seeking  a  land  where 
they  might  worship  freely ;  the  first  settlers,  especially,  came 
in  the  hope  of  finding  gold.  The  people  lived  on  large  plantations, 
so  that  many  a  southern  gentleman  had  to  ride  at  least  a  mile 
to  reach  his  nearest  neighbor.  The  soil  at  the  South  was  fertile, 
the  rivers  were  slow  and  navigable,  and  many  plantations  had 
their  own  wharves  where  English  ships  could  exchange  their 
cargoes  of  manufactured  goods  for  American  tobacco.  The 
warm  climate  was  favorable  to  African  labor;  and  once  intro- 
duced, the  system  of  slavery  spread  rapidly.  The  natural 
result  of  slavery  was  to  degrade  manual  labor,  thus  preventing 
the  rise  of  a  prosperous  middle  class ;  and  a  wide  social  distinc- 
tion separated  the  plantation  owners  from  the  landless  settlers. 
Thus  an  aristocratic  type  of  society  developed  in  the  South  as 
naturally  as  a  democratic  type  in  New  England.  Since  the 
population  was  scattered,  the  people  could  not  come  together 
in  town  meetings.  So  the  planters  adopted  a  system  of  county 
government  similar  to  that  in  England.  The  southern  colo- 
nies were  divided  into  counties,  each  governed  by  a  county 
court.  This  body  was  composed  of  justices  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  colony.  Thus  local  government  at  the  South 
was  less  democratic  than  in  New  England,  where  the  people 
themselves  met  in  town  meeting  to  pass  local  laws,  and  choose 
their  local  officers. 


BEFORE  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR— 1750 


I  I      Crown  Lands  reserved  for 

Indians   and  claimed   by 

the  Colonies  lying  to  the  eastward. 


AFTER  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR— 1763 

COLONIAL  NORTH   AMERICA 


LIFE    IN   COLONIAL   TIMES  .      129 

The  Middle  Colonies.  The  Middle  Colonies  were  situated 
between  New  England  and  the  South,  so  they  borrowed  some 
features  of  their  local  government  from  each  section.  From  New 
England  they  took  the  township ;  from  the  South,  the  county. 
The  functions  of  local  government  were  divided  between  these 
two  areas ;  hence  this  is  called  the  township-county  type  of 
local  government.  The  system  of  local  government  in  the 
Middle  Colonies  was  adopted  many  years  later  by  the  men 
who  moved  west  to  settle  the  Mississippi  Valley.  As  a  result, 
this  township-county  plan  now  prevails  throughout  the  group 
of  states  extending  from  New  York  to  Nebraska,  which  to- 
gether include  more  than  half  the  population  of  the  country. 
It  is  thus  our  most  representative  type  of  local  government. 

Colonial  Government.  Besides  its  system  of  local  govern- 
ment, each  colony  had  a  central  government,  something  like 
the  state  governments  of  to-day.  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  Rhode  Island  were  governed  under  charters  granted  by 
the  king,  which  gave  the  colonists  highly  prized  rights  of  self- 
government.  The  people  elected  the  governor  and  his  council, 
as  well  as  the  legislature ;  hence  they  had  almost  complete  control 
over  their  government.  In  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  Dela- 
ware, the  governor  was  appointed  by  the  proprietor,  although 
the  colonists  were  permitted  to  elect  a  representative  assembly. 
The  other  seven  were  royal  colonies ;  that  is,  they  were  ruled 
by  a  governor  appointed  by  the  king,  together  with  a  legislature 
chosen  by  the  colonists.  The  right  to  vote  was  everywhere 
limited  to  men  who  owned  a  certain  amount  of  property ;  and 
religious  tests  were  also  common.  In  every  colony,  the  people 
claimed  the  rights  of  Englishmen  living  in  the  mother  country. 
On  the  whole,  Great  Britain's  system  of  colonial  government 
was  more  free  and  liberal  than  that  which  any  other  nation  then 
granted  to  its  colonies. 

Agriculture  and  the  Fisheries.  Agriculture  was  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  colonists,  although  the  New  Englander  on 
his  small  farm  could  raise  only  the  simple  necessities  of  life. 
The  Middle  Colonies  were  the  chief  producers  of  foodstuffs, 
while  the  southern  planters  raised  staple  crops  of  tobacco,  rice, 


130  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

sugar,  and  indigo.  The  New  England  settlers  found  fishing 
one  of  their  most  profitable  occupations.  The  cod,  mackerel, 
and  whale  fishing  on  the  Atlantic  coast  gave  employment  to 
thousands  of  hardy  sailors.  In  1750,  the  port  of  Gloucester 
alone  had  seventy  vessels,  while  the  colony  of  Massachusetts 
had  six  thousand  persons  employed  in  the  fishing  industry. 
The  better  grades  of  fish  were  shipped  to  southern  Europe,  the 
poorer  grades  to  the  West  Indies. 

The  Fur  Trade.  The  fur  trade  with  the  Indians  was  another 
important  industry.  New  York  was  said  to  be  the  one  English 
colony  that  could  compete  successfully  with  the  French  fur 
traders.  Thousands  of  beaver  skins  were  also  shipped  from  New 
England,  while  Georgia  and  Virginia  exported  immense  quanti- 
ties of  deer  skins.  The  Indian  loved  the  white  man's  woolen 
blankets,  trinkets,  and  firearms ;  above  all  else,  he  loved  the 
white  man's  rum,  and  was  always  ready  to  exchange  any 
number  of  valuable  furs  for  a  small  quantity  of  liquor.  The 
fur  trade  pushed  its  way  westward  as  the  frontier  receded, 
gradually  crossing  the  Appalachian  barrier;  and  it  was  the 
rivalry  of  the  British  and  French  fur  traders  in  the  Ohio  Valley 
which  helped  to  bring  on  the  final  conflict  between  France  and 
Great  Britain.  At  the  South,  the  fur  trade  also  led  to  rivalry 
with  the  French  and  Spanish  colonists  of  the  Gulf  region. 

Commerce  and  Shipbuilding.  The  abundance  of  good 
harbors  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  resources  offered  by  the 
fisheries,  and  the  ready  supply  of  lumber  for  shipbuilding,  all 
combined  to  make  the  New  Englanders  a  seagoing  people.  A 
large  part  of  the  coasting  trade  was  carried  on  in  New  England 
vessels,  which  also  competed  with  British  ships  for  the  carrying 
trade  of  the  ocean.  British  laws  aided  New  England's  ship- 
building industry,  since  all  articles  shipped  to  or  from  the 
colonies  had  to  be  carried  in  British  or  colonial-built  ships. 
The  chief  products  which  the  colonists  bought  from  England 
were  woolen  goods,  wrought  iron,  and  nails.  Tobacco  was  their 
leading  export ;  while  next  in  order  came  naval  stores,  peltries, 
rice,  and  fish.  Three  fourths  of  the  exports  from  the  colonies 
to  England  were  shipped  from  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the 


LIFE   IN   COLONIAL   TIMES  131 

Carolinas.  The  northern  colonies  sent  no  great  staples,  but  paid 
for  British  goods  indirectly  through  their  shipbuilding  and 
carrying  trade,  and  by  means  of  their  commerce  with  the  West 
Indies  and  southern  Europe. 

Manufacturing  in  the  Colonies.  There  was  little  manu- 
facturing in  the  colonies,  for  the  mother  country  wished  them 
to  produce  raw  materials  for  her  own  factories,  instead  of 
supplying  themselves  with  manufactured  articles.  The  iron 
mined  in  the  colonies  might  be  made  into  crude  bars  or  pigs ;  but 
these  bars  must  be  sent  to  England  to  be  made  into  useful 
articles,  since  Parliament  had  prohibited  the  erection  in  the 
colonies  of  any  steel  furnace  or  mill  for  rolling  iron.  Straw 
hats  and  bonnets  might  be  made  in  the  homes  of  the  colonists, 
but  the  manufacture  of  cloth  or  felt  hats  was  restricted.  These 
acts  against  manufacturing  were  more  strictly  enforced  than 
the  Navigation  Acts,  so  that  only  household  industries  were 
carried  on  in  America.  The  wives  and  daughters  of  the  colonists 
dressed  flax  and  carded  wool,  which  was  spun  into  thread  or 
yarn  on  the  spinning  wheel,  and  woven  into  cloth  on  the  cumber- 
some hand  loom.  Mittens  and  socks  were  also  knitted  in  the 
home.  Blacksmithing,  the  dressing  of  leather,  shoemaking, 
soap  and  candle  making,  were  other  important  domestic 
industries.  There  were  many  flour  and  grist  mills,  and  the 
manufacture  of  molasses  into  rum  was  carried  on  extensively 
in  New  England. 

Free  Laborers  and  Indented  Servants.  On  the  small  farms, 
especially  in  the  North,  the  owner  usually  cultivated  his  own 
land  with  the  help  of  his  family.  Sometimes  free  laborers  were 
employed,  usually  at  a  high  rate  of  wages ;  for  throughout  the 
colonies,  labor  was  a  scarce  commodity.  Land  was  so  cheap 
and  yielded  such  large  returns  that  men  wanted  to  become 
independent  farmers,  and  were  not  willing  to  remain  hired 
laborers.  At  times  the  settlers  exchanged  labor  with  one  another, 
as  when  there  was  a  house  or  barn  to  be  raised,  or  when  crops 
were  being  harvested  —  work  that  called  for  united  effort. 

Much  more  numerous  than  the  free  laborers  were  the  unfree 
laborers  known  as  indented  servants.    Of  these  there  were  two 


132  COLONIZATION    OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

classes :  those  who  voluntarily  became  servants,  and  those 
who  were  forced  into  servitude.  The  first  class  was  made  up 
of  free  persons  who  emigrated  to  the  colonies  to  improve  their 
condition.  In  return  for  their  transportation,  they  bound  them- 
selves out  to  service  for  a  limited  period,  usually  five  or  seven 
years.  The  second  class  of  indented  servants  were  English 
men  and  women  forced  to  emigrate  by  the  government ;  or 
children  kidnapped  in  the  streets  of  London  or  Bristol,  and 
placed  on  ships  bound  for  America.  A  law  of  Parliament 
authorized  justices  of  the  peace  to  send  rogues,  vagabonds,  and 
"  sturdy  beggars  "  to  the  colonies.  Then  too,  thousands  of 
convicted  criminals  were  pardoned  on  condition  that  they 
go  to  America,  where  they  were  sold  into  servitude  for  from 
seven  to  fourteen  years. 

Slavery  and  the  Slave  Trade.  Slavery  existed  in  all  of  the 
colonies,  but  in  a  very  different  degree.  In  New  England  it 
was  fast  disappearing,  because  the  varied  industries  of  that 
section  made  slavery  unprofitable.  In  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  about  one  tenth  of  the  population  was  composed  of 
slaves ;  while  in  the  South  the  slaves  numbered  forty  per  cent 
of  the  total  population.  Many  of  the  southern  colonies  at  first 
opposed  the  introduction  of  slavery,  but  the  need  for  labor  was 
great,  and  slave  labor  seemed  well  suited  to  the  climate  and 
crops  of  the  South.  In  the  tobacco  fields  of  Virginia  and  on  the 
rice  plantations  of  South  Carolina,  the  work  was  done  by  slaves 
under  the  direction  of  overseers.  Harsh  laws  governed  the 
treatment  of  the  negroes.  They  were  the  absolute  property 
of  their  masters,  and  had  no  redress  even  against  the  most 
cruel  and  inhuman  treatment.  New  slaves  were  usually  secured 
from  Africa.  The  slave-trade  was  very  profitable,  and  many  New 
England  merchants  were  engaged  in  the  traffic.  Molasses  was 
brought  from  the  West  Indies  to  New  England,  where  it  was 
manufactured  into  rum  ;  this  was  taken  to  Africa  and  exchanged 
for  slaves,  who  were  sold  in  the  West  Indies  or  in  the  southern 
colonies. 

Homes  of  the  Colonists.  Most  of  the  small  houses  in  the 
country  were  built  of  logs,  either  left  round  or  roughly  squared 


LIFE   IN   COLONIAL  TIMES  133 

with  a  broad-ax.  The  cracks  between  the  logs  were  chinked 
with  wedges  of  wood,  and  daubed  with  clay.  The  roof  was 
usually  of  shingles,  or  of  thatch  supported  by  poles.  A  log 
shutter  was  hung  at  the  opening  left  for  a  window,  and  a  bark 
door  hung  on  leather  straps  completed  the  home.  A  platform 
about  two  feet  high  placed  along  the  wall  and  supported  at  the 
outer  edge  by  strong  posts,  formed  a  bedstead ;  while  hemlock 
boughs  served  for  the  mattress.  It  was  not  a  soft  one,  but  there 
was  a  popular  frontier  saying  that,  "  A  hard  day's  work  makes 
a  soft  bed."  Sometimes  the  houses  in  the  frontier  communities 
were  surrounded  by  a  stockade  of  logs  set  on  end,  with  heavy 
gates.  This  formed  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  colonists  in  case  of 
Indian  raids.  When  the  town  site  of  Milford,  Connecticut, 
was  inclosed  in  this  way,  the  Indians  taunted  the  settlers 
by  crying  out,  "  White  men  all  same  like  pigs." 

After  sawmills  came  into  use,  the  best  dwellings  were  built 
of  milled  lumber,  and  were  often  patterned  after  the  country 
houses  in  England  —  square,  with  broad  porches  supported 
by  many  columns.  Many  of  the  later  houses  were  built  of 
stone  and  mortar,  or  of  brick.  The  first  windows  were  of  oiled 
paper,  glass  being  a  rare  luxury.  The  early  Dutch  houses 
in  New  York  were  built  of  brick,  and  were  set  close  to  the 
sidewalk  with  the  gable  end  toward  the  street.  In  the  South, 
the  favorite  dwelling  was  a  frame  building,  with  a  large  stone 
chimney  at  either  end.  When  tobacco  brought  prosperity  to 
the  planters,  better  homes  were  built  with  wide  porches  and 
stately  columns.  There  were  separate  buildings  for  the  slaves 
and  overseers,  besides  the  stable,  barn,  smokehouse,  and  spin- 
ning house,  where  the  slaves  used  to  spin  flax  and  wool  under 
the  direction  of  the  mistress  of  the  plantation.  The  best  example 
that  has  been  preserved  of  a  comfortable  southern  mansion, 
such  as  was  built  in  the  eighteenth  century,  is  the  Mount  Vernon 
home  of  George  Washington. 

The  Kitchen  Fireside.  The  kitchen,  which  was  also  the 
living  room,  was  the  most  cheerful  and  homelike  room  in  the 
house.  Its  most  attractive  feature  was  the  kitchen  fireside.  In 
all  the  early  houses,  immense  chimneys  were  built,  usually  of 


134 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 


stone ;  and  whole  logs  could  be  burned  on  the  andirons  within 
the  spacious  fireplace.  Sometimes  there  were  seats  within  the 
chimney  on  either  side,  where  the  entire  family  could  sit  and 
watch  the  sparks  fly  up  the  great  chimney.     The  primitive 

method  of  roasting 
was  to  suspend  the 
joint  of  meat  in 
front  of  the  fire  by 
a  cord  tied  to  a  peg 
in  the  ceiling  ;  from 
time  to  time,  the 
housewife  or  one  of 
the  children  would 
twist  the  string  so 
as  to  turn  the  roast 
around.  Bread  and 
pies  were  baked  in 
a  large  brick  oven, 
built  in  on  one  side 
of  the  fireplace. 
For  many  years, 
these  picturesque 
fireplaces  were  the 
only  means  of  heat- 
ing or  cooking.  The 
Germans  of  Penn- 
sylvania were  the 
first  to  use  stoves 
and  airdrums ;  and 
in  1742  Benjamin 
Franklin  invented  his  famous  stove  in  which  either  wood  or  coal 
could  be  burned. 

The  Serving  of  Meals.  The  kitchen  utensils  were  usually 
pewter  or  earthenware,  for  tin  was  then  a  luxury.  The  dining 
table  was  a  long  narrow  board,  supported  on  trestles ;  and  the 
diners  sat  on  benches  instead  of  chairs.  Food  was  served  in 
wooden  trenchers  or  blocks  of  wood  about  ten  inches  square, 


Copyright  and  Courtesy  of  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 

The  Traveling  Shoemaker 

Notice  the  cooking  utensils  hanging  around  the 
fireplace.  Behind  the  little  girl  is  the  brick  bake- 
oven.  Above  the  hearth  hangs  the  flintlock,  bullet 
pouch,  and  powder  horn.  In  the  corner  stands  the 
spinning  wheel,  and  in  the  next  room  the  mother 
is  working  at  the  loom. 


LIFE    IN   COLONIAL   TIMES 


135 


hollowed  into  the  form  of  a  bowl.  There  were  not  even  enough 
of  these  simple  dishes  to  go  around ;  so  that  two  children,  or 
a  man  and  his  wife,  usually  ate  out  of  one  trencher.  Even  the 
famous  Miles  Standish  used  wooden  trenchers  at  his  table,  as  did 
all  of  the  early  governors.  Bottles  and  drinking  cups  were  also 
of  wood.  The  colonists  had  plenty  of  napkins  and  much  need 
for  them,  for  forks  were  un- 
known until  late  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Platters  as 
well  as  spoons  were  of  pewter, 
for  china  had  not  yet  come 
into  use.  In  a  volume  called 
A  Pretty  Little  Pocketbook, 
printed  late  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  there  is  a 
list  of  rules  for  the  behavior 
-  of  children  at  the  table. 
They  were  ordered  never  to 
seat  themselves  until  after 
the  blessing  had  been  asked  ; 
they  were  never  to  ask  for 
anything  on  the  table  ;  never 
to  speak  unless  spoken  to ; 
always  to  break  the  bread, 
not  to  bite  into  a  whole  slice  ; 
never  to  take  salt  except  with 
a  clean  knife ;  and  never  to 
throw  bones  under  the  table. 
How  the  Houses  Were 
Lighted.  These  early  homes 
were  lighted  by  pine  knots  from  the  forest.  One  old  Massachu- 
setts minister  boasted  that  every  one  of  the  hundred  sermons  he 
had  written  was  copied  by  this  flickering  light.  Candles  made 
from  tallow  next  came  into  use.  These  were  made  in  great  kettles 
hung  in  the  kitchen  fireplace,  filled  with  boiling  water  and  melted 
tallow.  Six  or  eight  wicks  of  loosely  spun  fyemp  or  tow  were  placed 
on  a  rod,  and  carefully  dipped  again  and  again  in  the  melted 


An  Iron  Stove 

Now  in  the  State  Capitol,  Richmond. 
Made  in  London,  1770,  by  Buzaglo,  and 
used  in  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses. 


J 


136  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

tallow  until  the  candles  reached  the  desired  size.  Later  each 
family  kept  a  tin  or  pewter  mold  for  making  candles.  Wax 
candles  were  also  used ;  some  farmers  kept  hives  of  bees  for 
the  wax  as  well  as  for  the  honey,  while  others  made  candles 
from  the  berries  of  the  bay  berry  bush,  which  still  grows  in 
large  quantities  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Illumination  was 
afterwards  much  improved  by  the  use  of  whale  oil,  burned  in 
pewter  or  glass  lamps. 

For  many  years,  the  only  method  of  striking  a  light  was  by 
means  of  a  steel  flint.  As  Charles  Dickens  afterwards  said,  "If 
you  had  good  luck,  you  could  get  a  light  in  this  way  in  half 
an  hour."  Every  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  fire  from  going 
out ;  and  if  this  happened,  some  member  of  the  family,  usually 
the  small  boy,  was  sent  to  bring  live  coals  from  the  neighbor. 
The  first  practical  friction  matches  were  introduced  in  1827. 

Clothing.  On  the  frontier  settlements,  deer  skins  tanned  as 
soft  as  cloth  were  much  used  for  men's  clothing,  while  moccasins 
like  those  worn  by  the  Indians  supplied  the  place  of  shoes.  As 
the  country  became  more  settled,  the  entire  family  was  often 
clothed  in  homespun,  the  product  of  the  household  loom.  The 
Massachusetts  Puritans  wore  plain  clothes,  and  forbade  the 
purchase  of  garments  trimmed  with  lace,  or  adorned  with 
slashed  sleeves,  belts,  or  ruffles;  while  silk  hoods  and  scarfs, 
beaver  hats,  and  silver  shoe-buckles  also  came  under  the  ban. 
Even  the  women  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania  had  to  be  warned 
against  wearing  hoop  petticoats,  scarlet  shoes,  and  puffed  or 
powdered  hair.  But  these  laws  were  in  force  only  during  the 
early  colonial  period;  and  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  costumes  were  often  quite  elaborate.  Even  little  girls 
in  wealthier  families  wore  long-armed  gloves  and  masks  of 
cloth  or  velvet  to  protect  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  When 
George  Washington  sent  to  England  for  an  outfit  for  his  four- 
year-old  stepdaughter,  his  order  included  coats  of  silk,  masks, 
caps,  bonnets,  ruffles,  necklaces,  fans,  leather  pumps,  silk 
shoes,  and  four  pairs  of  kid  gloves. 

Men's  clothing  was  often  as  rich  and  varied  as  that  of  the 
women.     The  wealthier  colonists  had  their  clothes  made  in 


LIFE    IN   COLONIAL   TIMES  137 

London  according  to  the  latest  fashion,  —  tall  hats  of  beaver- 
skin,  ruffled  shirts,  coats  and  cloaks  of  fine  broadcloth,  knee 
breeches,  silk  stockings,  and  shoes  with  large  silver  buckles. 
An  English  traveler  in  1740  said  that  the  men  of  Boston  dressed 
as  gay  every  day  as  courtiers  in  England  at  a  coronation. 

Amusement  and  Sports.  The  New  England  Puritans 
regarded  pleasure  as  sinful,  and  frowned  upon  all  forms  of 
worldly  amusement.  To  these  earnest  pioneers,  work  was  the 
chief  business  of  life,  and  whatever  interrupted  it  was  a  waste 
of  time.  Dancing  and  card  playing  were  of  course  prohibited, 
and  even  music  was  not  looked  upon  with  favor,  except  in  the 
churches.  But  as  the  colonists  became  more  prosperous,  they 
took  a  different  view  of  amusements.  Afternoon  teas  became 
fashionable,  until  the  tax  on  tea  made  these  entertainments 
unpatriotic.  Just  before  the  Revolution,  the  women  of  New 
England  organized  the  Daughters  of  Liberty,  a  patriotic  society 
which  met  in  spinning  matches  to  spin  native  wool  and  to 
encourage  the  opposition  to  tea  drinking.  In  the  country  the 
people  held  harvest  festivals,  apple  parings,  candle  dippings,  and 
corn  huskings.  Music  was  no  longer  confined  to  psalms  in  the 
churches,  and  singing  schools  were  everywhere  popular. 

The  Dutch  settlers  were  fond  of  amusement  and  sports,  so 
that  life  in  New  York  was  from  the  first  much  gayer  than  in  New 
England.  Music  was  very  popular,  and  many  concerts  were 
given ;  while  outdoor  sports  included  shooting  and  fishing, 
bowling,  golf,  tennis,  cricket,  and  horse  racing.  There  was  a 
race  track  on  Long  Island  as  early  as  1666,  and  from  then  until 
the  Revolution,  horse  racing  was  a  regular  event  of  each  year. 
The  southern  planters  were  also  very  fond  of  outdoor  sports, 
especially  horse  racing  and  fox  hunting. 

Religious  Life.  Most  of  the  colonists  held  sincere  religious 
beliefs,  and  many  had  sought  refuge  in  America  in  order  to  have 
freedom  of  worship.  In  Puritan  New  England,  every  one  was 
compelled  by  law  to  attend  church.  The  Sabbath  day  began  at 
six  p.m.  on  Saturday,  and  lasted  until  sundown  on  Sunday ; 
during  this  period,  amusements  of  every  kind  were  strictly 
forbidden.    The  people  of  the  town  were  summoned  to  church 


138 


COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW  WORLD 


by  the  beating  of  a  drum  or  the  blowing  of  a  horn,  for  church 
bells  had  not  yet  come  into  use.  Sermons  were  long,  and  since 
the  churches  were  not  heated  in  winter,  many  of  the  congre- 
gation brought  foot-warming  stoves  filled  with  charcoal.  There 
was  no  music  except  the  singing  of  hymns,  and  the  prayers 
were  almost  as  long  as  the  sermons.     The  minister  spoke  from 

a  high  pulpit.  In 
front  of  him  the 
deacons  sat  in  ele- 
vated pews,  while 
other  members  of 
the  congregation 
were  seated  in  the 
body  of  the  church, 
according  to  their 
station  in  life.  Lit- 
tle girls  sat  beside 
their  mothers,  or  on 
footstools  at  their 
feet,  or  sometimes 
on  the  gallery  stairs. 
Boys  did  not  sit 
with  their  families, 
but  were  placed  in 
groups  on  the  pulpit 
and  gallery  stairs, 
where  atithing-man 
watched  over  them 
to  keep  order.  In 
spite  of  his  efforts, 
the  "  boys'  pue"  in  the  gallery  was  often  a  noisy  place. 

One  small  boy  in  Connecticut  had  to  appear  before  the  justice 
of  the  peace  for  the  following  misconduct :  "  A  Rude  and 
Idel  Behaver  in  the  meeting  hous.  Such  as  Smiling  and  Larfing 
and  Intiseing  others  to  the  Same  Evil.  Such  as  Larfing  or 
Smiling  or  puling  the  hair  of  his  nayber  Benoni  Simkins  in 
the  time  of  Publik  Worship.     Such  as  throwing  Sister  Penticost 


Copyright  and  Courtesy  of  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 

A  Winter  Service  in  Church 

Each  pew  is  entered  through  a  small  door  fastened 
by  a  twisted  wrought  iron  hook  which  can  be  seen 
at  the  right. 

On  the  pulpit  stands  an  hourglass. 


LIFE    IN   COLONIAL   TIMES  139 

Perkins  on  the  Ice,  it  being  Saboth  day,  between  the  meet- 
ing hous  and  his  plaes  of  abode."  The  New  York  boys  did 
not  behave  much  better.  On  Long  Island,  godless  youth  "ran 
raesses  "  on  the  Sabbath,  and  talked  of  "  vane  things  " ;  and 
finally  a  cage  was  set  up  in  City  Hall  Park  in  which  boys 
were  confined  who  did  not  properly  observe  the   Sabbath. 

The  Puritan  or  Congregational  Church  was  the  principal 
religious  body  throughout  New  England,  except  in  Rhode 
Island  where  the  Baptists  were  in  the  majority.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  and  New  Jersey,  there  were  many  Quakers, 
together  with  large  numbers  of  Lutherans,  Presbyterians,  and 
Baptists.  New  York  was  the  home  of  almost  every  sect,  although 
in  earlier  days  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  was  the  established 
church  of  the  colony.  There  were  many  Roman  Catholics  in 
Maryland,  but  later  the  Episcopal  Church  became  the  leading 
one  in  this  colony,  as  it  was  from  the  outset  in  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas. 

The  Witchcraft  Delusion.  The  colonists  of  the  seventeenth 
century  brought  with  them  from  Europe  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft. Superstitions  die  hard ;  and  from  earliest  times,  men 
believed  in  the  existence  of  evil  spirits  that  sometimes  entered 
the  bodies  of  people,  usually  friendless  old  women,  and  caused 
them  to  work  harm  to  their  neighbors.  In  England,  Parliament 
actually  passed  a  law  which  punished  with  death  any  one  guilty 
of  "  Witchcrafte  and  dealing  with  evill  and  wicked  Spirits." 
Cotton  Mather,  one  of  the  leading  ministers  of  Boston,  wrote  a 
long  treatise  on  witchcraft ;  and  his  book  helped  to  promote 
the  strange  delusion  that  seized  upon  the  people  of  Salem  in 
1692. 

The  trouble  began  when  the  children  of  one  Samuel  Parris 
indulged  in  strange  antics,  saying  that  certain  persons  whom 
they  or  their  father  disliked  had  bewitched  them.  Soon  there 
were  accusations  on  all  sides,  and  scores  of  people  were  ar- 
rested and  brought  before  a  special  court  for  trial.  Many  con- 
fessed their  guilt ;  they  had  actually  talked  to  the  devil,  who 
took  the  form  of  a  tall  black  man  with  a  high-crowned  hat.  To 
others,  a  black  dog  had  appeared  and  said,  "  Serve  me."     One 


140  COLONIZATION   OF   THE   NEW   WORLD 

woman  related  that  she  was  riding  on  a  broom-stick  with 
another  witch,  when  suddenly  the  stick  broke ;  but  by  holding 
fast  to  the  witch  in  front  of  her,  she  reached  her  destination 
safely.  So  overwrought  were  the  minds  of  the  people  that  they 
actually  believed  these  silly  tales.  When  the  craze  came  to  an 
end,  twenty  persons  had  been  convicted  and  put  to  death, 
fifty-five  had  been  pardoned  after  confessing  their  guilt,  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  more  were  in  jail  awaiting  trial. 

Schools  and  Newspapers.  Nearly  every  town  in  New 
England  had  a  public  school  for  the  education  of  its  children, 
and  the  district  school  system  was  carried  into  the  West  by  the 
New  Englanders  who  emigrated  into  the  Ohio  Valley.  The 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  ordered  in  1647  that  a  common 
school  should  be  established  in  every  township  containing  fifty 
families,  and  a  grammar  school  in  the  larger  towns.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  public  school  system  which  has  ever  since 
been  the  pride  of  the  people  of  Massachusetts.  The  Middle 
Colonies  also  had  public  schools,  although  they  were  not  so 
general  as  in  New  England.  At  the  South,  public  schools  were 
almost  unknown  because  the  plantations  were  too  far  apart  for 
a  district  school  system.  The  wealthier  planters  had  private 
tutors  for  their  children,  and  their  sons  were  often  sent  to 
colleges  in  England  or  at  the  North.  The  first  college  in  the 
United  States  was  Harvard  College,  founded  in  1636.  Other 
colleges  established  before  the  Revolution  were  William  and 
Mary  College,  Yale,  Princeton,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Columbia,  Brown,  Rutgers,  and  Dartmouth. 

Public  libraries  did  not  exist,  and  the  few  books  published 
were  chiefly  on  religious  subjects.  The  first  book  printed  in  the 
colonies  was  the  Bay  Psalm  Book,  published  in  Boston  in  1640. 
Weekly  newspapers  were  printed  in  the  larger  towns,  the 
earliest  being  the  Boston  News  Letter,  which  dates  from  1704. 
By  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  there  were  thirty-seven  news- 
papers in  circulation  throughout  the  colonies.  The  contents 
of  the  entire  thirty-seven  would  scarcely  fill  a  dozen  pages  in 
one  of  our  modern  dailies,  and  their  combined  circulation  did 
not  exceed  a  few  thousand  copies.     The  early  printing  press  was 


LIFE    IN   COLONIAL   TIMES  141 

a  crude  affair  worked  by  hand,  with  a  capacity  of  about  one 
hundred  small  sheets  per  hour.  There  were  no  printing  presses 
in  Virginia  until  1729,  and  Governor  Berkeley  thanked  God  for 
it,  "  as  printing  presses,"  he  said,  " bring  heresies  in  the  world, 
and  libel  the  best  government  that  the  world  ever  saw." 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  C.  M.,  Colonial  Self -Government,  chs.  XVIII- XIX. 

Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  Ill- VI. 

Bogart,  E.  L.,  and  Thompson,  C.  M.,  Readings  in  the  Economic  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,  pp.  1-142. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch. 
VII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  I,  ch.  XXI. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  I. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Commerce  and  Trade  in  the  Colonies.     Callender,  G.  S., 
Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  II. 

2.  Colonial  Finance.     Dewey,   D.   R.,   Financial   History  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  I. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Colonists  and  the  Revolution,  pp.  3-8,  70-87. 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days. 

Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  chs.  I- VI. 

Gordy,  W.  F.,  Stories  of  Early  American  History,  ch.  XVII. 

Guerber,  H.  M.,  Story  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Source  Readers  in  American  History,  I,  pp.  201-233  ; 

II,  1-37. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Editor,  American  Statesmen  and  Patriots,  I,  pp.  238-243. 


142 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE    QUARREL    WITH   THE    MOTHER    COUNTRY 

Conditions  after  the  French  and  Indian  War.  The  life  and 
death  struggle  with  France  was  ended.  The  genius  of  Pitt 
had  wrested  Canada  from  the  French,  but  the  war  left  Great 
Britain  staggering  under  a  debt  of  $700,000,000.  The  colonies 
had  borne  a  large  part  in  the  contest,  and  were  also  deeply  in 
debt.  The  conflict  taught  the  colonists  something  of  the  art 
of  war,  something  of  the  importance  of  united  action.  Brad- 
dock's  defeat  showed  them  that  the  British  regulars  were  not 
invincible,  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris  freed  them  from  the  menace 
of  French  power  in  America.  Was  Great  Britain's  annexation 
of  Canada  a  real  gain  to  her  empire?  Not  if  the  prophecy  of 
the  French  statesman,  Vergennes,  proved  true.  "  I  am  per- 
suaded," said  he,  "  that  England  will  ere  long  regret  having 
removed  the  only  check  that  could  keep  her  colonies  in  awe. 
They  no  longer  stand  in  need  of  her  protection ;  she  will  call 
on  them  to  contribute  towards  supporting  the  burdens  they 
have  helped  to  bring  on  her;  and  they  will  answer  by  striking 
off  all  dependence.  " 

The  New  Colonial  Policy.  After  the  close  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  the  British  government  resolved  to  adopt  a 
new  colonial  policy.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years,  the 
American  colonists  had  been  left  largely  to  themselves,  and 
were  free  to  manage  their  affairs  with  little  interference  from 
the  mother  country.  This  policy  was  now  to  be  changed.  The 
British  ministry  had  decided  on  a  definite  and  systematic  plan 
for  the  control  of  the  colonies : 

(1)  The  laws  concerning  trade  and  navigation  were  to  be 
strictly  enforced. 

(2)  A  standing  army  of  ten  thousand  men  was  to  be  stationed 
in  the  colonies  for  their  defense  and  protection. 

143 


3 


144  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

(3)  The  colonial  governors  and  judges  were  to  be  paid  out 
of  the  British  treasury,  instead  of  having  their  salaries  voted 
by  the  colonial  assemblies.  This  would  make  the  royal  officers 
independent  of  the  assemblies. 

(4)  To  pay  these  salaries  and  to  provide  part  of  the  cost 
of  maintaining  troops  in  America,  Parliament  was  to  levy 
a  tax  on  the  colonies,  instead  of  asking  the  colonial  assemblies 
to  vote  grants  of  money. 

Personal  Government  of  King  George  III.  This  new  colonial 
policy  was  due  chiefly  to  the  character  of  the  monarch  who 
ascended  the  British  throne  in  1760.  King  George  III  was  of 
German  descent,  the  third  ruler  of  the  Hanover  line  which 
succeeded  to  the  British  throne  in  1714.  His  mother,  Augusta 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  brought  to  England  all  the  traditions  of  the 
petty  German  court  to  which  she  was  accustomed.  In  the 
rearing  of  her  son,  she  constantly  exhorted  him  to  "  be  a  king  " 
in  fact,  as  well  as  in  name.  So  King  George  came  to  the  throne 
a  narrow-minded,  willful,  obstinate  man,  determined  to  enforce 
his  own  will  rather  than  that  of  the  British  people. 

By  giving  lavish  bribes  of  money  and  offices,  the  new  monarch 
secured  control  of  Parliament,  where  his  supporters  were  known 
as  "  the  King's  friends."  During  the  first  twenty  years  of 
his  long  reign,  King  George  was  able  to  substitute  his  own 
arbitrary  rule  in  place  of  the  constitutional  government  which 
Englishmen  claimed  as  their  dearest  birthright.  It  was  the 
Englishmen  living  in  the  American  colonies  who  took  the  lead 
in  the  struggle  against  this  tyranny ;  and  in  doing  so,  they  were 
really  fighting  for  the  liberties  of  Englishmen  in  the  mother 
country  as  well  as  in  the  colonies. 

Many  of  England's  greatest  men  understood  this,  and  fully 
sympathized  with  the  colonists  in  their  resistance  to  the  new 
colonial  policy.  Such  leaders  as  William  Pitt,  Lord  Camden, 
Edmund  Burke,  Charles  James  Fox,  and  Colonel  Isaac  Barre, 
looked  upon  the  cause  of  the  colonists  as  their  own.  They  realized 
that  the  colonists  were  struggling  against  the  same  kind  of  tyr- 
anny which  had  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  last  Stuart  king  in  the 
"  Glorious  Revolution  "  of  1688.   Unfortunately  for  their  country, 


THE    QUARREL   WITH   THE    MOTHER   COUNTRY      145 

the  protests  of  these  patriotic  Englishmen  were  not  heeded  by 
the  unrepresentative  Parliament  controlled  by  King  George. 

Relation  of  the  Colonies  to  Parliament.  The  new  colonial 
policy  was  doomed  to  failure  partly  because  it  was  carried  out 
by  such  tactless  ministers  as  Grenville  and  Townshend,  still 
more  because  the  long  period  of  virtual  home  rule  had  made  the 
colonists  independent  in  spirit  and  unwilling  to  surrender  any  l^ 
privileges  of  self-government.  The  colonists  acknowledged 
their  allegiance  to  the  king,  but  they  denied  the  authority  of  / 
Parliament  to  legislate  concerning  their  domestic  affairs.  Early 
in  the  dispute,  the  colonists  admitted  that  Parliament  had  power 
to  pass  general  acts  regulating  trade  and  commerce  throughout 
the  entire  empire ;  but  they  claimed  that  internal  taxes 
could  be  levied  only  by  their  own  assemblies.  The  British 
government,  on  the  other  hand,  claimed  that  the  legislative 
authority  of  Parliament  over  the  colonies  was  supreme  and 
complete.  Parliament  could  tax  them  or  legislate  for  them 
on  any  subject. 

The  Dispute  over  Representation.  The  colonists  denied 
the  general  authority  of  Parliament  to  legislate  for  them,  and 
quoted  the  British  constitution  as  their  authority.  English 
doctrine  running  back  to  Magna  Charta  (1215)  held  that  taxes 
could  be  levied  only  with  the  consent  of  the  people  given 
through  their  representatives.  Hence  Parliament  had  no 
authority  to  levy  taxes  upon  the  colonists,  for  they  were  not 
represented  in  that  body.  In  answer  to  this,  the  king  and  his 
ministers  said  that  the  colonists  were  really  represented  in 
Parliament,  even  though  they  did  not  vote  for  its  members; 
for  Parliament  represented  the  entire  empire,  not  merely  the 
voters  of  Great  Britain.  Much  of  the  bitter  controversy  that 
followed  arose  from  the  conflicting  views  of  America  and  Great 
Britain  as  to  what  was  really  meant  by  representation. 

In  the  colonies  there  had  long  been  a  territorial  basis  for 
representation ;  thus  in  New  England  the  towns,  and  elsewhere 
generally  the  counties,  sent  representatives  to  the  colonial 
assemblies.  Moreover,  residence  within  the  particular  district 
was  commonly  required  for  both  voters  and  representatives. 


146  THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 

Hence  the  maxim  "  no  taxation  without  representation  "  meant 
to  the  colonist  that  no  taxes  should  be  levied  except  by  a 
legislative  body  in  which  was  seated  a  member  from  his  district, 
chosen  by  the  voters  of  that  district. 

The  British  Point  of  View.  In  Great  Britain  a  very  different 
view  of  representation  prevailed.  In  that  country  no  attempt 
was  made  to  base  representation  upon  population.  As  a  result, 
ancient  boroughs  like  Tavistock  or  Old  Sarum  with  less  than  a 
dozen  inhabitants  continued  to  send  one  or  two  members  to  Par- 
liament ;  while  such  flourishing  cities  as  Birmingham,  Leeds, 
Manchester,  and  Liverpool  had  no  representatives  at  all.  Three 
hundred  and  seventy-one  members,  or  more  than  one  half  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  were  chosen  by  one  hundred  and  seventyr 
seven  persons.  In  spite  of  this  condition,  all  Englishmen  were 
held  to  be  "  virtually  "  represented  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
since  in  theory  each  member  of  that  body  represents  not  a  single 
borough  only,  but  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Hence  the  British 
government  claimed  that  the  colonists  like  other  Englishmen 
were  virtually  represented  in  the  House  of  Commons.  If 
they  did  not  directly  participate  in  the  election  of  its  members, 
they  were  at  least  no  worse  off  in  that  respect  than  the  great 
body  of  Englishmen  at  home;  for  of  the  8,000,000  people  in 
England,  only  about  150,000  had  the  right  to  vote  for  members 
of  Parliament. 

This  theory  was  scoffed  at  by  William  Pitt,  the  great 
champion  of  the  colonies  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Pitt 
declared  that  "  the  idea  of  a  virtual  representation  of  America 
in  this  House  is  the  most  contemptible  idea  that  ever  entered 
into  the  head  of  a  man." 

The  Mercantile  Colonial  System.  Underlying  the  political 
causes  of  the  Revolution  was  a  fundamental  economic  cause, 
the  colonial  system.  European  powers,  including  Great  Britain, 
looked  upon  their  colonies  as  settlements  made  in  distant 
parts  of  the  world  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  wealth  of 
the  colonizing  country.  Colonies  were  to  furnish  a  market  for 
the  production  of  raw  materials  which  the  mother  country 
wanted   to   buy,   and   for  the   consumption   of  manufactured 


THE    QUARREL   WITH   THE   MOTHER   COUNTRY     147 

products  which  the  mother  country  wished  to  sell.  In  this  way 
it  was  thought  that  a  self-sustaining  empire  would  be  built  up, 
an  empire  that  would  not  be  dependent  on  foreign  countries 
for  the  commodities  needed  by  its  people. 

In  accordance,  with  this  doctrine,  Great  Britain  passed 
measures  which  aimed  to  utilize  her  colonies  so  as  to  benefit 
British  merchants  and  manufacturers.  For  example,  the 
Navigation  Acts  provided  that  goods  carried  to  or  from  the 
colonies  must  be  carried  in  British  or  colonial  ships.  The 
Acts  of  Trade  forbade  the  shipping  of  the  chief  colonial  products 
to  any  country  except  England,  where  they  must  pay  heavy 
duties ;  while  similar  duties  were  imposed  on  goods  shipped 
from  one  colony  to  another.  The  colonists  objected  especially 
to  the  Molasses  Act  of  1733,  and  to  the  Sugar  Act  of  1764,  which 
were  intended  to  suppress  the  trade  between  the  colonies  and 
the  French  West  Indies.  New  England  enjoyed  a  flourishing 
trade  with  these  islands,  receiving  molasses  and  sugar  in  ex- 
change for  her  flour,  lumber,  and  fish.  Had  the  Molasses  Act 
been  strictly  enforced,  the  prosperity  of  New  England  would 
have  been  at  an  end.  But  smuggling  was  carried  on  so  generally 
that  it  became  almost  respectable ;  the  customs  officers  and 
even  the  royal  governors  often  connived  at  the  practice. 

Home  Rule  the  Real  Issue.  In  fairness  to  Great  Britain, 
it  should  be  noted  that  some  of  her  trade  laws  helped  the  colonies. 
The  Navigation  Act  made  New  England  a  shipbuilding  commu- 
nity by  giving  colonial  ships  the  same  monopoly  enjoyed  by 
British-built  vessels.  Parliament  also  encouraged  certain  colonial 
industries  by  offering  bounties  on  the  production  of  hemp,  lumber, 
tar,  and  turpentine.  But  in  spite  of  some  favorable  measures, 
Great  Britain's  economic  system  was  resented  by  the  robust 
people  living  three  thousand  miles  away  from  the  seat  of  power. 
At  length  the  British  ministry  under  Grenville's  leadership  deter- 
mined to  enforce  the  acts  of  navigation  and  trade.  Orders  were 
sent  to  the  American  customhouses  and  to  the  British  war- 
ships along  the  coast  to  use  every  effort  to  prevent  smuggling. 
The  strict  enforcement  of  these  acts  threatened  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  colonies  ;  and  thus  the  real  issue  between  them 


148  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

and  Great  Britain  became  one  of  home  rule.  Were  the  colonies 
to  be  allowed  to  map  out  their  own  destinies,  or  were  they  to  be 
held  as  a  storehouse  and  market  for  the  people  of  Great  Britain  ? 
Economic  freedom  or  dependence  was  therefore  the  supreme 
issue.  As  one  writer  says :  "  American  independence,  like  the 
great  rivers  of  the  country,  had  many  sources ;  but  the  head 
spring  which  colored  all  the  streams  was  the  Navigation  Act." 

Writs  of  Assistance.  Once  landed,  smuggled  goods  could  be 
easily  concealed  in  private  stores  and  dwellings.  Hence  the 
customs  officials  were  instructed  to  use  writs  of  assistance 
to  aid  them  in  discovering  contraband  goods.  The  writ  of  as- 
sistance was  really  a  general  search  warrant ;  for  it  did  not  name 
the  house  to  be  searched,  nor  did  it  describe  the  goods  to  be 
seized.  The  writ  authorized  the  revenue  officers  to  search  any 
suspected  place ;  and  since  it  was  good  for  an  indefinite  period, 
any  man's  house  might  be  broken  into  and  ransacked  at  any 
time.  These  writs  were  very  unpopular,  for  they  violated  the 
ancient  principle  of  English  liberty  that  "  every  man's  house  is 
his  castle,"  not  to  be  entered  without  his  consent.  The  merchants 
of  Boston  determined  to  oppose  the  writs  in  the  courts,  and 
James  Otis,  a  young  Boston  lawyer,  resigned  a  royal  office  to 
argue  their  case.  Otis  undertook  to  convince  the  court  that 
such  tyrannical  writs  ought  never  to  be  issued.  He  pointed 
out  that  in  Great  Britain  a  similar  abuse  of  power  "  had  cost 
one  king  his  head,  another  his  throne."  The  decision  of  the 
court  was  in  favor  of  the  writs,  but  the  fiery  eloquence  of  Otis 
encouraged  the  colonists  in  their  resistance  to  arbitrary  power. 
"  Then  and  there,"  wrote  John  Adams  many  years  later,  "  the 
child  Independence  was  born." 

The  Stamp  Act,  1765.  More  dangerous  still  to  the  liberties 
of  the  colonists  was  the  famous  Stamp  Act  passed  by  Parliament 
in  the  spring  of  1765.  This  act  placed  a  tax  upon  all  commercial 
and  legal  documents  used  in  the  colonies,  such  as  deeds,  mort- 
gages, and  wills  ;  while  every  newspaper,  pamphlet,  and  almanac 
must  also  bear  a  government  stamp.  The  stamps  cost  from  one 
cent  to  fifty  dollars,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  docu- 
ment on  which  they  were  placed.    This  measure  was  proposed 


THE   QUARREL  WITH   THE   MOTHER  COUNTRY     149 

by  Grenville  as  a  part  of  the  new  colonial  policy  decided  on  by 
the  British  government.  The  colonies  were  to  be  taxed,  not  for 
the  support  of  the  home  government,  but  to  help  pay  the  salaries 
of  colonial  officials  and  part  of  the  expense  of  maintaining 
troops  in  America.  When  he  first  proposed  the  Stamp  Act, 
Grenville  gave  the  colonies  a  year  in  which  to  suggest  some  other 
means  of  raising  revenue  which  might  be  ''more  convenient  to 
them."  Although  most  of  the  colonies  protested  strongly  against 
the  proposed  tax,  they  did  not  suggest  any  practical  substitute. 


From  the  Painting  by  Chappel. 

The  Debate  on  the  Stamp  Act 

The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  meeting  in  Richmond,  May,  1765, 
interrupting  Patrick  Henry  in  his  famous  speech  against  the  Stamp  Act. 


What  America  Thought  of  the  Stamp  Act.  The  news  that 
Parliament  had  actually  passed  the  Stamp  Act  was  received  in 
America  with  indignation  and  alarm.  Soon  a  storm  of  protest 
burst  forth.  The  Virginia  legislature  was  then  in  session ; 
among  its  members  was  a  young  lawyer  named  Patrick  Henry, 
soon  to  become  famous  as  a  brilliant  orator.  Henry  now  moved 
the  adoption  of  a  series  of  resolutions  which  he  had  written  upon 
the  blank  leaf  of  an  old  law  book.  The  resolutions  declared  that 
the  colonists  had  all  the  rights  of  British  subjects,  including 


150  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

the  right  to  be  free  from  taxes  except  those  voted  by  their  own 
representatives.  No  legislative  body  except  their  own  assembly 
could  lawfully  impose  taxes  on  the  people  of  Virginia ;  and  any 
one  who  asserted  the  contrary  should  be  deemed  an  enemy  of 
the  colony.  Virginians  need  not  obey  the  Stamp  Act  or  any  other 
tax  law  not  passed  by  their  own  assembly. 

Many  of  the  older  members  opposed  these  resolutions, 
but  the  fiery  eloquence  of  the  young  orator  carried  the  day. 
The  climax  of  Henry's  speech  came  with  the  thrilling  words 
which  made  him  famous  for  all  time :  "  Tarquin  and  Caesar  had 
each  his  Brutus ;  Charles  the  First,  his  Cromwell ;  and  George 
the  Third"  —  (" Treason!"  shouted  the  Speaker,  and  cries 
of  "  Treason!  treason!"  rang  through  the  hall).  After  a 
moment's  defiant  pause,  the  orator  concluded :  "  may  profit 
by  their  example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it." 
Henry's  resolutions  were  adopted  by  a  close  vote,  and  published 
throughout  the  colonies.  As  Governor  Bernard  of  Massachusetts 
said,  they  proved  "  an  alarm  bell  to  the  disaffected." 

The  Stamp  Act  Congress.  In  order  to  unite  the  colonies 
in  their  resistance,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  proposed 
that  a  general  congress  should  be  held.  Accordingly,  delegates 
from  nine  of  the  colonies  met  at  New  York  in  October,  1765. 
The  Stamp  Act  Congress  adopted  a  "  Declaration  of  the  Rights 
and  Grievances  of  the  Colonists  "  which  proclaimed  : 

(1)  That  the  colonists  have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
natural-born  subjects  within  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain. 

(2)  That  it  is  an  undoubted  right  of  Englishmen  to  be  taxed 
only  with  their  own  consent,  given  through  their  representatives. 

(3)  That  the  people  of  the  colonies  are  not,  and  from  their 
local  circumstances  cannot  be,  represented  in  Parliament. 

(4)  That  only  their  representatives,  the  colonial  assemblies, 
can  tax  them. 

(5)  That  it  is  the  duty  of  the  colonies  "  to  endeavor,  by  a 
loyal  and  dutiful  address  to  his  Majesty,  and  humble  applica- 
tion to  both  houses  of  parliament,  to  procure  the  repeal  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  and  of  the  other  late  acts  for  the  restriction  of 
American  commerce." 


THE    QUARREL   WITH   THE   MOTHER   COUNTRY     151 

Popular  Resistance.  It  was  not  alone  by  such  peaceful  and 
legal  methods  that  opposition  to  the  tax  was  shown.  The  first 
news  of  the  Stamp  Act  had  called  into  existence  groups  of  secret 
societies,  known  as  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  whose  members  were 
pledged  to  resist  the  obnoxious  law.  This  name  was  first  applied 
to  the  colonists  by  Colonel  Isaac  Barre,  one  of  their  staunch 
friends  in  the  British  Parliament.  In  an  eloquent  speech,  he  had 
referred  to  the  colonists  as  "  those  sons  of  liberty."  The  mothers 
and  daughters  formed  similar  clubs  called  "  Daughters  of  Lib- 
erty." They  agreed  to  weave  in  their  own  homes  the  cloth 
formerly  purchased  from  Great  Britain.  Leading  merchants 
everywhere  signed  non-importation  agreements,  binding  them- 
selves not  to  import  British  goods  until  the  Stamp  Act  should 
be  repealed. 

November  1,  1765,  had  been  fixed  as  the  day  when  the  act 
was  to  go  into  effect.  As  the  time  drew  near,  serious  riots 
occurred.  Boxes  of  stamps  as  they  arrived  were  seized  and  de- 
stroyed by  mobs.  Stamp  distributors  were  burned  in  effigy, 
and  compelled  by  threats  to  resign  their  office.  In  Boston,  the 
fine  residence  of  Chief  Justice  Hutchinson  was  sacked  by  a  mob 
and  his  valuable  library  destroyed.  The  lieutenant  governor  of 
New  York  talked  of  firing  on  the  people.  He  was  warned  that 
if  he  did  so,  he  would  be  hanged  on  the  nearest  lamp-post.  In 
the  face  of  this  opposition,  it  was  impossible  to  enforce  the  law. 
It  was  everywhere  ignored,  but  business  went  on  as  before.  Some 
editors  issued  their  papers  with  a  death's  head  and  cross-bones 
where  the  stamp  should  have  been  placed.  It  was  plain  that  the 
law  could  not  be  enforced  except  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  1766.  The  effect  of  this  opposition 
began  to  be  felt  in  Great  Britain.  Trade  with  the  colonies  fell 
off  rapidly  as  a  result  of  their  policy  of  non-intercourse ;  while 
British  factories  were  closing  down,  and  thousands  of  men  were 
thrown  out  of  work.  Public  opinion  in  the  commercial  and 
manufacturing  towns  demanded  the  repeal  of  the  law  that  was 
so  hateful  to  the  colonists ;  but  the  British  landowners,  who 
were  paying  a  land  tax  of  four  shillings  on  the  pound,  insisted 
that  it  be  enforced.    A  stormy  debate  took  place  in  Parliament 


152  THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 

over  the  proposal  to  repeal.  Pitt  and  Burke  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  Camden  in  the  House  of  Lords,  championed 
the  cause  of  the  colonists.  In  an  eloquent  speech  urging  the 
repeal  of  the  act,  Pitt  exclaimed:  "The  gentleman  tells  us, 
America  is  obstinate ;  America  is  almost  in  open  rebellion.  I 
/ 1<5  rejoice  that  America  has  resisted.  Three  millions  of  people  so 
dead  to  all  the  feelings  of  liberty  as  voluntarily  to  submit  to 
be  slaves,  would  have  been  fit  instruments  to  make  slaves  of 
all  the  rest," 

The  Stamp  Act  was  finally  repealed  in  March,  1766.  But  along 
with  the  repeal,  Parliament  passed  an  act  declaring  its  right 
to  make  laws  binding  upon  the  colonists  "  in  all  cases  whatso- 
ever." Thus  Parliament  still  claimed  the  right  to  tax  the 
colonies,  while  admitting  that  the  Stamp  Act  was  inexpedient. 
The  news  of  the  repeal  was  received  in  America  with  universal 
rejoicing.  Vessels  in  the  harbors  were  decked  with  flags,  bon- 
fires blazed  in  every  town,  loyal  addresses  of  thanks  were  voted 
by  the  colonial  assemblies. 

The  Townshend  Acts,  1767.  If  the  colonists  thought  that  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  meant  that  Great  Britain  had  given 
up  the  principle  in  dispute,  they  were  soon  to  find  out  their 
mistake.  The  very  next  year  after  the  repeal,  a  new  plan  for 
taxing  the  colonies  was  laid  before  Parliament.  Its  author, 
Charles  Townshend,  said  :  "  I  know  the  mode  by  which  a  revenue 
may  be  drawn  from  America  without  offense."  The  colonists 
had  objected  to  the  Stamp  Act  on  the  ground  that  it  was  an 
internal  tax;  but  they  admitted  the  right  of  Parliament  to 
levy  external  taxes,  or  duties  on  imported  goods.  The  British 
ministry  determined  to  take  the  colonists  at  their  word,  and 
tax  them  by  the  old  method  of  import  duties.  So  Parliament 
passed  the  Townshend  Acts,  which  placed  duties  on  glass,  lead, 
paper,  paints,  and  tea,  when  these  articles  were  brought  into 
the  colonies.  The  duties  were  to  be  collected  at  the  seaports  by 
a  host  of  newly  appointed  revenue  officers,  armed  with  writs 
of  assistance,  and  aided  by  British  soldiers  and  ships. 

The  Townshend  Acts  were  as  dangerous  to  liberty  as  the 
Stamp  Act  itself.     Not  only  were  the  colonists  to  be  taxed 


THE    QUARREL   WITH    THE    MOTHER   COUNTRY     153 


without  their  consent,  but  part  of  the  revenue  was  to  be  used  to 
pay  the  salaries  of  colonial  governors  and  judges.  Up  to  this 
time,  these  salaries  had  been  voted  by  the  colonial  assemblies ; 
now  the  royal  officials  were  to  be  paid  by  the  British  government, 
and  made  independent  of  colonial  control.  The  acts  also  took 
away  the  time-honored  right  of  trial  by  jury.  Persons  accused 
of  violating  the  revenue  laws  were  to  be  tried  in  the  admiralty 
courts,  without  a  jury. 

Opposition  to  the  Town- 
shend  Acts.  Once  more  a 
stream  of  petitions,  remon- 
strances, and  resolves  was 
sent  forth  across  the  water 
to  Great  Britain.  At  the 
request  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Assembly,  Samuel 
Adams  drew  up  a  petition 
to  the  king,  and  a  circular 
letter  which  was  sent  to  the 
other  colonial  legislatures. 
The  petition  was  received 
by  George  III  with  silent 
contempt,  but  the  letter  to 
the  colonial  assemblies  en- 
raged the  king  and  his  minis- 
ters. The  Massachusetts 
Assembly  was  ordered  to  rescind  its  letter,  and  the  other  as- 
semblies were  instructed  "to  take  no  notice  of  it,  which  will  be 
treating  it  with  the  contempt  it  deserves." 

The  order  to  rescind  was  spurned  by  the  Massachusetts 
Assembly.  "We  are  asked  to  rescind !  "  thundered  Otis.  "  Let 
Great  Britain  rescind  her  measures,  or  her  colonies  are  lost 
to  her  forever!"  The  governor  of  Massachusetts  promptly 
dissolved  the  Assembly,  but  its  vote  against  rescinding  was 
hailed  with  delight  throughout  the  country.  Once  more  the 
continent  was  roused  to  resistance.  The  Sons  of  Liberty  be- 
came   active,    non-importation    agreements    were    everywhere 


Samuel  Adams 

From   the   portrait  by   Copley   in    the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 


!\ 


154  THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 

signed,  and  again  the  British  merchants  complained  of  the  loss 
of  their  profitable  American  trade.  Parliament  determined 
once  more  to  pacify  the  unruly  colonists.  All  the  import  duties 
were  repealed  except  the  tax  of  threepence  a  pound  on  tea.  This 
was  retained  as  a  matter  of  principle.  "  There  must  be  one  tax/' 
said  King  George,  "  to  keep  up  the  right."  But  it  was  this 
very  principle,  not  the  amount  of  the  tax,  to  which  the  colonists 
objected. 

Conflict  between  Citizens  and  Soldiers  in  Boston.  For 
some  years  two  regiments  of  British  regulars  had  been  stationed 
in  Boston  to  aid  the  customs  officials  in  enforcing  the  revenue 
laws.  On  March  5,  1770,  a  serious  conflict  took  place  between 
some  of  these  troops  and  the  citizens.  Stirred  by  the  taunts  of 
a  crowd  which  surrounded  and  threatened  them,  a  company  of 
eight  soldiers  under  Captain  Preston  at  last  fired,  killing  five 
men  and  wounding  six  others.  Great  excitement  followed ;  the 
next  day  an  immense  town  meeting  under  the  lead  of  Samuel 
Adams  demanded  the  immediate  removal  of  the  troops  from 
Boston.  Governor  Hutchinson  finally  yielded,  and  the  two 
regiments  were  sent  to  Castle  Williams,  three  miles  down  the 
harbor. 

Violent  outbreaks  also  took  place  in  several  other  colonies. 
The  men  of  Rhode  Island  seized  and  burned  the  Gaspee,  a 
British  man-of-war  engaged  in  suppressing  smuggling.  In 
New  York  City  there  was  a  riot  and  fight  between  the  troops 
and  citizens  over  the  destruction  of  the  liberty  pole  by  the 
soldiers.  These  conflicts  served  to  widen  the  rapidly  growing 
breach  between  the  mother  country  and  her  colonies. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  One  of  the  ardent  leaders 
of  the  patriot  cause  in  Massachusetts  was  Samuel  Adams, 
whose  resistance  to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  Great  Britain  won 
for  him  the  title,  "  Father  of  the  American  Revolution." 
Realizing  the  value  of  organized  opposition,  Adams  formed  a 
shrewd  plan  for  securing  cooperation  among  the  patriots  in 
different  towns.  He  persuaded  the  town  meeting  of  Boston  to 
appoint  a  committee  of  correspondence  for  the  purpose  of 
acquainting  other  Massachusetts  towns  with  events  in  Boston. 


THE    QUARREL   WITH    THE    MOTHER   COUNTRY     155 

The  plan  soon  spread  to  other  towns,  then  to  other  colonies, 
until  by  1773  there  were  committees  of  correspondence  in  six 
of  the  colonies.  There  was  as  yet  no  general  congress  for  united 
action ;  these  committees  in  part  served  this  purpose,  and  thus 
paved  the  way  for  some  kind  of  union. 

Sentiment  of  the  People  in  England.  Many  people  in  Eng- 
land sympathized  with  the  colonists,  and  were  opposed  to  the 
attempts  of  the  British  government  to  coerce  them.  But  since 
these  Englishmen  were  so  unfairly  represented  in  Parliament, 
they  had  little  influence  upon  its  policy.  In  a  letter  written 
from  London  to  the  Speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  Assembly, 
Benjamin  Franklin  said :  "  With  regard  to  the  sentiments  of 
people  in  general  here  concerning  America,  I  must  say  that  we 
have  among  them  many  friends  and  well-wishers.  The  Dis- 
senters are  all  for  us,  and  many  of  the  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers. There  seems  to  be,  even  among  the  country  gentle- 
men, a  growing  sense  of  our  importance,  a  disapprobation  of  the 
harsh  measures  with  which  we  have  been  treated,  and  a  wish 
that  some  means  might  be  found  of  perfect  reconciliation." 

The  Offer  of  Cheap  Tea.  Parliament  had  voted  to  keep 
the  duty  on  tea ;  and  at  last  King  George  and  his  ministers  hit 
upon  what  they  thought  a  clever  scheme  to  induce  the  colonists 
to  pay  the  tax.  The  East  India  Company,  which  imported  the 
tea  from  China,  was  obliged  to  pay  a  duty  of  one  shilling  a  pound 
at  English  ports.  The  British  government  decided  to  remit  the 
entire  amount  of  this  duty  on  all  tea  exported  to  the  colonies. 
Hereafter  the  only  tax  on  tea  sent  to  America  would  be  that  of 
threepence  a  pound,  collected  at  American  ports.  This  made 
tea  cheaper  in  the  colonies  than  it  was  in  England.  The  king 
felt  certain  that  the  colonists  would  readily  pay  the  tax  in 
order  to  have  cheap  tea.  He  was  determined,  by  insisting  upon 
the  tax,  "  to  try  the  issue  with  America." 

In  the  autumn  of  1773,  the  East  India  Company  sent  ships 
laden  with  tea  to  the  ports  of  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Charleston.  The  British  government  soon  discovered  that 
the  colonists  would  not  give  up  the  principle  at  issue  for  the 
sake  of  cheap  tea.    Again  the  country  was  roused  to  resistance, 


156 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


even  more  violent  than  in  case  of  the  Stamp  Act.  Immense 
public  meetings  were  held  at  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
The  agents  to  whom  the  tea  was  consigned  were  forced  to 
give   up  their  commissions,   and   the   ships   were   sent   back. 

At  Charleston  the 
cargo  was  landed, 
but  the  agents  re- 
signed and  no  one 
would  buy  the  tea. 
The  Boston  agents 
refused  to  resign, 
or  to  order  the  tea 
sent  back  ;  and  so 
it  was  at  Boston 
that  the  issue  was 
fought  out. 

The  Boston  Tea 
Party.  A  monster 
mass  meeting  at  the 
Old  South  Meeting 
House  voted  that 
the  tea  should  be 
sent  back  to  Eng- 
land in  the  ship 
which  brought  it 
over.  The  customs 
officers  refused  to 
permit  this,  and  for 
a  time  it  seemed 
that  the  tea  would 
surely  be  landed. 
On  December  16, 
1773,  a  throng  of 
seven  thousand  people  assembled  at  the  Old  South  Meeting 
House  to  consider  what  should  be  done.  "Who  knows,"  asked 
John  Rowe,  "  how  tea  will  mingle  with  salt  water?  "  Loud 
applause  followed  the  suggestion.      An  hour  after  nightfall, 


mftiu'i-  - 

%0 

r" 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston 

Built  1742 ;  interior  destroyed  by  fire  January  13, 
1761 ;  restored  by  proceeds  from  a  public  lottery. 

Scene  of  the  "Sons  of  Liberty"  meeting  held 
March  18,  1767,  after  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
First  meeting  in  protest  against  the  tax  on  tea  was 
held  here  November  5,  1773.  Faneuil  Hall  is  called 
"The  Cradle  of  American  Liberty." 


- 
THE    QUARREL   WITH    THE    MOTHER   COUNTRY     157 


when  the  church  was  dimly  lighted  with  candles,  a  messenger 
returned  with  the  governor's  final  refusal  to  permit  the  tea  to 
be  sent  back.  Samuel  Adams  at  once  arose  and  said :  "  This 
meeting  can  do  nothing  more  to  save  the  country."  Scarcely 
had  he  uttered  these  words  when  a  warwhoop  was  heard  in  the 
streets.  About  fifty  men  disguised  as  Mohawk  Indians  were  on 
their  way  to  Griffin's  Wharf.  Boarding  the  ships,  they  quickly 
emptied  the  three  hundred  and  forty  chests  of  tea  into  the  water. 
Next  morning  the  salted  tea  lay  in  long  rows  on  the  beach, 
and  Paul  Revere  was  riding  to  Philadelphia  with  the  news  of 
Boston's  defiance  of  British  power. 

The  Five  Intolerable  Acts,  1774.  The  Boston  Tea  Party 
looked  like  sedition  to  the  home  government.  "  The  question 
now  brought  to  issue,"  said  one  member  of  Parliament,  "  is 
whether  the  colonies  are  or  are  not  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain." 
Another  member  declared  that  the  town  of  Boston  ought  to  be 
completely  destroyed.  Determined  to  coerce  and  punish  the 
colonists,  Parliament  promptly  passed  the  five  measures  known 
in  our  history  as  the  "  Intolerable  Acts." 

(1)  The  Port  Bill  closed  the  port  of  Boston  until  the  town 
should  pay  for  the  tea.  The  blockade  was  to  be  enforced  by  Brit- 
ish warships,  and  the  people  starved  into  submission.  But  the 
other  colonies  hastened  to  the  aid  of  oppressed  Massachusetts. 
From  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  and  Connecticut, 
large  supplies  of  corn,  wheat,  flour,  and  rice  were  sent  overland 
to  Boston. 

(2)  The  Regulating  Act  remodeled  the  charter  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  destroyed  the  free  institutions  which  had  flourished 
there  for  a  century  and  a  half.  Town  meetings,  those  "  nests 
of  sedition,"  could  no  longer  be  held  except  with  the  governor's 
consent ;  the  colonial  assembly  lost  its  most  important  rights, 
while  the  royal  governor  became  all-powerful. 

(3)  The  Administration  of  Justice  Act  provided  that  an 
officer  or  soldier  accused  of  murder  in  putting  down  riots  or 
while  enforcing  the  revenue  laws,  might  be  taken  to  another 
colony  or  to  Great  Britain  for  trial.  Ordinarily  a  person  so 
accused  would  have  a  jury  trial  in  Massachusetts. 


158  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

(4)  The  Quartering  Act  was  intended  to  secure  accommoda- 
tions for  the  troops  sent  to  America.  If  the  colonies  did  not 
provide  barracks  on  demand,  the  governor  might  order  "  un- 
inhabited houses,  barns,  or  other  buildings  "  to  be  used,  upon 
making  a  reasonable  compensation  to  the  owners. 

(5)  Finally,  the  Quebec  Act  extended  the  boundary  of  that 
province  southward  to  the  Ohio  River,  thus,  as  the  colonists 
thought,  setting  aside  the  territorial  claims  of  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  and  Virginia.  This  vast  region  was  to 
be  governed  by  a  viceroy  with  despotic  powers ;  within  it  there 
should  be  no  popular  meetings,  no  freedom  of  the  press.  "  This," 
declared  Lord  Thurlow,  "  is  the  only  sort  of  constitution  fit 
for  a  colony."  "  Was  it,"  asked  the  colonists,  "  the  condition 
to  which  all  were  soon  to  be  reduced?  " 

To  enforce  these  coercive  measures,  General  Gage  with 
four  regiments  of  soldiers  was  sent  to  Boston.  On  the  first  day 
of  June,  1774,  he  was  to  close  the  port ;  he  was  to  arrest  the 
leading  patriots,  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams,  and  send 
them  to  England  for  trial ;  and  he  was  authorized  to  order  the 
soldiers  to  fire  on  the  people,  if  necessary  to  carry  out  his  orders. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  VIII. 

Becker,  C.  L.,  Beginnings  of  the  American  People,  chs.  V-VI. 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  ch.  I  ;  III, 
chs.  I-VI. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  II,  chs.  XXI- 
XXV. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution,  chs.  Ill- XV. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Writs  of  Assistance,  pp.  105-109,  The  Stamp  Act,  pp.  122- 
131,  Resolutions  of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  pp.  136-139,  Quarter- 
ing Act,  pp.  131-136,  Massachusetts  Circular  Letter,  pp.  145-150. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.   Causes  of  the  Revolution.     Sloane,  W.  M.,  The  French  War 
and  the  Revolution,  chs.  XI- XIV. 


THE    QUARREL   WITH   THE   MOTHER   COUNTRY     159 

2.  English  Colonial  Policy.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States,  Part  II,  chs.  VII-IX. 

3.  The  Stamp  Act.  Sloane,  W.  M.,  The  French  War  and  the 
Revolution,  ch.   XI. 

4.  Finances  of  the  Revolution  and  Robert  Morris.  Dewey,  D. 
R.,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  II. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Stamp  Act.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Colonists  and  the  Revolu- 
tion, pp.  221-224  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  III,  pp.  66- 
79  ;   Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  33-36. 

2.  The  Boston  Tea  Party.  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  III, 
pp.  93-102. 

3.  Robert  Morris.  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,  ch. 
IV. 

4.  Patrick  Henry.  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  III,  pp. 
103-109. 

5.  Samuel  Adams.  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation, 
ch.  II. 


Colonists  Burning  the  Stamp  Seller  in  Effigy 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  DAWNING   OF  INDEPENDENCE 

The  First  Continental  Congress,  1774.  The  British  govern- 
ment was  soon  to  learn  that  it  could  not  single  out  Boston  for 
punishment ;  the  other  colonies  realized  that  the  cause  of 
Massachusetts  was  their  own.     From  Virginia  now  came  the 

suggestion  for  a  general  con- 
gress ' '  to  deliberate  on  those 
measures  which  the  united 
interests  of  America  may 
from  time  to  time  require." 
Massachusetts  issued  the 
call,  and  on  September  5, 
1774,  the  First  Continental 
Congress  assembled  at  Car- 
penter's Hall,  Philadelphia. 
All  of  the  colonies  except 
Georgia  were  represented 
in  this  famous  body;  and 
its  fifty-five  delegates  in- 
cluded many  of  the  ablest 
men  in  America.  Massa- 
chusetts sent  John  Adams, 
one  of  the  earliest  advocates 
of  independence,  and  Sam- 
uel Adams,  shrewdest  of 
political  leaders.  Connecticut  sent  her  sturdy  shoemaker  states- 
man, Roger  Sherman.  Pennsylvania  was  represented  by  John 
Dickinson,  whose  "  Farmer's  Letters  "  had  so  well  pleaded  the 
American  cause.  From  New  York  came  John  Jay,  afterwards 
our  first  Chief  Justice.     South  Carolina  was  represented  by 

160 


From  the  Original  in  Independence  Hall. 

Roger  Sherman 

One  of  the  committee  which  drew  up 
the  Declaration  of  Independence. 


THE   DAWNING   OF   INDEPENDENCE  161 

two  members  of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  Christopher  Gadsden 
and  John  Rutledge.  Virginia  sent  three  famous  men,  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  Patrick  Henry,  and  George  Washington. 

By  unanimous  vote,  the  Congress  adopted  a  "  Declaration 
of  Rights  and  Grievances,"  demanding  the  repeal  of  thirteen 
acts  of  Parliament  claimed  to  be  in  violation  of  colonial  rights. 
An  agreement  known  as  "  The  Association  "  was  signed, 
pledging  the  colonists  not  to  import  or  consume  British  goods 
until  the  obnoxious  acts  should  be  repealed.  The  exportation  of 
goods  to  Great  Britain  was  likewise  forbidden  after  September, 
1775.  A  resolution  was  passed  approving  the  opposition  of 
Massachusetts  to  the  Intolerable  Acts.  If  force  was  used 
in  attempting  to  execute  them,  "all  America  ought  to  support 
the  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts  in  their  opposition."  Con- 
gress also  drew  up  addresses  to  be  sent  to  the  people  of  Great 
Britain,  to  the  king,  and  to  the  colonists.  Before  adjourning, 
it  was  decided  that  a  second  Continental  Congress  should  meet 
the  next  year,  unless  Great  Britain  repealed  her  oppressive 
measures. 

Debate  in  the  House  of  Lords.  When  the  addresses  and 
resolves  of  the  Continental  Congress  were  laid  before  Parliament, 
William  Pitt  (now  Lord  Chatham)  declared  them  "  unsurpassed 
by  any  state  papers  ever  composed  in  any  age  or  country."  In 
support  of  his  motion  that  the  British  troops  should  be  at  once 
removed  from  Boston,  Chatham  said :  "  The  spirit  which  now 
resists  your  taxation  in  America  is  the  same  which  established 
the  essential  maxim  of  your  liberties,  that  no  subject  of  England 
shall  be  taxed  but  by  his  own  consent.  Every  motive  of  justice 
and  policy,  of  dignity  and  of  prudence,  urges  you  to  allay  the 
ferment  in  America  by  a  removal  of  your  troops  from  Boston, 
by  a  repeal  of  your  acts  of  Parliament,  and  by  showing  a 
friendly  disposition  toward  your  colonies." 

Lord  Camden,  second  only  to  Chatham  in  debate,  likewise 
supported  the  cause  of  the  colonists.  "  This,"  he  declared,  "  I 
will  say,  not  only  as  a  statesman,  politician,  and  philosopher, 
but  as  a  common  lawyer :  my  lords,  you  have  no  right  to  tax 
America ;  the  natural  rights  of  man  and  the  immutable  laws  of 


162 


THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 


nature  are  all  with  that  people.  King,  lords,  and  commons 
are  fine-sounding  names ;  but  king,  lords,  and  commons  may 
become  tyrants  as  well  as  others ;  it  is  as  lawful  to  resist  the 
tyranny  of  many  as  of  one.  Somebody  once  asked  the  great 
Selden  in  what  book  you  might  find  the  law  for  resisting  tyr- 
anny. '  It  has  always  been  the  custom  of  England,'  an- 
swered Selden,  '  and  the  cus- 
tom of  England  is  the  law 
of  the  land.  '  " 

In  answer  to  this  plea, 
Lord  Suffolk  replied  that 
the  government  was  resolved 
not  to  repeal  a  single  one  of 
the  coercive  acts,  but  to  use 
all  possible  means  to  bring 
the  Americans  to  obedience. 
By  a  decisive  vote,  the  House 
of  Lords  sustained  the  minis- 
try, and  voted  down  Chat- 
ham's, motion  to  withdraw 
the  troops  from  Boston. 
Soon  afterwards,  Chatham, 
aided  by  Franklin,  drew  up 
a  plan  for  reconciliation  with 
America,  but  it  was  rejected 
by  a  vote  of  sixty-one  to 
thirty-two. 

Conciliation  Fails  in  Parliament.  In  the  House  of  Commons, 
Edmund  Burke  spoke  in  favor  of  conciliation  with  the  colonies. 
"  England,"  said  Burke,  "  is  like  the  archer  that  saw  his  own 
child  in  the  hands  of  the  adversary,  against  whom  he  was  going 
to  draw  his  bow."  But  the  efforts  of  such  friends  of  liberty  as 
Burke,  Fox,  Chatham,  and  Camden  proved  in  vain.  Members  of 
Parliament  voted  an  address  to  the  throne,  declaring  Massachu- 
setts in  a  state  of  rebellion,  and  pledging  their  lives  and  property 
to  its  suppression.  The  liberals  in  Parliament  were  outvoted 
but  not  silenced.     They  saw  that  England  in  its  war  on  America, 


From,  the  Portrait  by  Duplessis. 

Benjamin  Franklin 

Philosopher,  statesman,  scientist,  dip- 
lomat, and  author.  Colonial  agent 
for  Pennsylvania  in  England,  1757-1762, 
and  1764-1775. 


THE    DAWNING   OF   INDEPENDENCE 


163 


was  really  at  war  with  itself.  "  The  colonies,"  said  Dunning, 
"  are  not  in  a  state  of  rebellion,  but  are  resisting  the  attempt  to 
establish  despotism  in  America,  as  a  prelude  to  the  same  system 
in  the  mother  country.  Opposition  to  arbitrary  measures  is 
warranted  by  the  constitution  and  established  by  precedent." 

Lexington  and  Concord,  April  19,  1775.  Meantime,  affairs 
in  Massachusetts  were  moving  swiftly  toward  a  crisis.  General 
Gage  with  a  force  of  five 
thousand  men  held  Bos- 
ton in  sullen  submission ; 
but  he  dared  not  provoke 
a  conflict  by  arresting 
Hancock  and  Adams,  or 
by  attempting  to  disarm 
the  inhabitants.  While 
the  British  were  throwing 
up  fortifications  around 
Boston,  the  colonists 
were  not  idle.  In  the 
near-by  towns,  compa- 
nies of  minutemen  were 
drilling  on  each  village 
green  ;  stores  of  muskets 
and  powder  and  ball 
were  collected  and  hid- 
den away  for  the  conflict 
that  seemed  at  hand ; 
and  by  the  spring  of  1775, 
eastern  Massachusetts 
had  become  an  armed 
camp. 

Now  or  never,  Gage  must  strike.  He  determined  on  a  secret 
expedition  which  should  arrest  the  patriot  leaders,  Hancock 
and  Adams,  at  Lexington,  then  destroy  the  military  stores 
hidden  at  Concord.  Toward  midnight  on  April  18,  1775,  eight 
hundred  British  soldiers  crossed  the  Charles  River  in  boats, 
and  started  on  the  road  to  Lexington.    But  the  patriots  were 


The  Old  North  Church 

Parish  organized  1650.  Present  church 
built  1723.  Noted  for  the  spirited  reformers 
and  patriots  in  its  congregation. 


164 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


on  the  watch.  Signal  lanterns  hung:  in  the  belfry  of  the  Old 
North  Church  flashed  out  the  warning  to  swift-riding  mes- 
sengers. Far  ahead  of  the  British  troops  rode  Paul  Revere, 
and  his  warning  shouts  awakened  the  farmers  along  the  Lexing- 
ton highway.  Signal  fires  were  lighted  on  the  hilltops ;  soon  the 
whole  countryside  knew  that  the  British  soldiers  were  coming. 

Warned  by  Revere, 
Adams  and  Han- 
cock made  their  es- 
cape from  Lexing- 
ton and  started  for 
Philadelphia,  where 
the  Second  Conti- 
nental Congress  was 
soon  to  meet.  At 
daybreak  of  April 
19,  the  British 
reached  Lexington, 
where  they  were 
confronted  by  about 
sixty  minutemen. 
Their  commander, 
Captain  Parker,told 
his  men  :  "  Don't 
fire  unless  you  are 
fired  on ;  but  if  they 
want  a  war,  let  it 
begin  here."  A  shot 
was  fired,  by  which 
side  is  not  certain ; 


The  monument  at  Concord  to  the  Minutemen 
beyond  the  "  rude  bridge  that  arched  the  flood  " 

The  monument  in  the  foreground  marks  the  spot 
where  the  first  British  soldiers  fell. 


then  came  a  volley  from  the  British  soldiers  which  killed  eight 
men  and  wounded  many  others.  Unable  to  oppose  a  force  that 
outnumbered  them  ten  to  one,  the  minutemen  fell  back  in 
confusion. 

The  British  Retreat  to  Boston.  From  Lexington  the  British 
forces  marched  on  to  Concord,  only  six  miles  away,  where  they 
destroyed  a  few  cannon  and  other  military  supplies.    Toward 


THE   DAWNING   OF    INDEPENDENCE  165 

noon  they  began  their  retreat  to  Lexington.  The  countryside 
was  aroused  by  this  time.  From  the  shelter  of  trees,  rocks,  and 
fences,  a  deadly  fire  was  poured  on  the  British  regulars,  until 
the  retreat  became  a  rout.  At  Lexington  they  must  have  sur- 
rendered had  not  strong  reinforcements  under  Lord  Percy 
come  to  their  rescue.  With  nearly  two  thousand  men  under 
his  command,  Percy  had  to  fight  every  foot  of  his  way  back  to 
Boston  along  a  highway  swarming  with  deadly  marksmen. 
The  fighting  did  not  end  until  nightfall,  when  the  wearied 
British  soldiers  found  shelter  in  Charlestown  under  the  guns 
of  the  king's  ships. 

As  a  result  of  this  memorable  nineteenth  of  April,  all  America 
realized  that  war  had  actually  begun.  From  every  hill  and 
valley  of  New  England,  men  left  their  farms  to  aid  the  patriots 
of  Massachusetts.  Within  three  days  after  Lexington,  General 
Gage  was  no  longer  a  besieger;  he  was  himself  surrounded  in 
Boston  by  an  untrained  army  of  16,000  men. 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  Nearly  two  months  passed,  and 
still  the  British  dared  not  risk  another  engagement.  Large 
reinforcements  arrived  from  England  in  May,  until  General 
Gage  had  under  his  command  10,000  veteran  soldiers. 
Even  with  this  strong  force,  his  position  was  seriously 
threatened.  Should  the  patriots  seize  and  fortify  the  hills 
north  of  Charlestown,  their  batteries  would  command  Boston. 
So  Gage  determined  to  occupy  Bunker  Hill  and  Breed's  Hill, 
two  of  the  heights  of  Charlestown.  The  Americans  learned  of 
his  plan,  and  on  the  night  of  June  16,  1775,  Colonel  Prescott 
with  one  thousand  men  set  out  to  fortify  Bunker  Hill.  Prescott's 
little  army  reached  Bunker  Hill,  but  instead  of  fortifying  it, 
advanced  to  the  near-by  Breed's  Hill.  Here  under  cover  of 
the  darkness,  the  minutemen  hastily  threw  up  a  redoubt  about 
six  feet  in  height. 

General  Gage  determined  that  the  works  on  Breed's  Hill 
should  be  captured  at  once.  The  British  might  have  attacked 
the  Americans  from  the  rear,  but  Gage  disdained  this  safer 
plan.  The  cowardly  rebels  should  be  driven  out  by  a  direct 
assault  on  their  front.    Three  thousand  regulars  under  General 


166 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


Boston  and  Vicinity  in  1775 
Howe  were  landed  at  Charlestown.  In  two  divisions  they 
climbed  the  slope  toward  the  fortifications.  Prescott's  men, 
reinforced  by  militia  under  Putnam  and  Stark,  awaited  the 
attack.  On  the  British  marched,  until  they  were  within  fifty 
yards  of  the  redoubt.  Suddenly,  from  within  the  fortifications 
came  the  sharp  order  to  fire,  and  a  deadly  volley  mowed  down 
whole  ranks  of  the  British.  Howe's  men  wavered,  then  broke 
and  retreated  down  the  hill.  Rallied  by  their  officers,  the  British 
re-formed  their  lines  and  once  more  came  on.  At  thirty  yards 
they  again  encountered  a  murderous  fire.  Once  more  they 
fled  down  the  hill,  leaving  hundreds  of  their  comrades  dead 
on  the  slope.  Nearly  an  hour  passed  before  the  third  attack. 
This  time  they  were  received  with  only  a  scattering  fire;  the 
Americans  had  used  up  their  ammunition,  and  had  no  bayonets 
with  which  to  repel  a  charge.  Still  the  patriots  stubbornly 
resisted,  using  their  muskets  as  clubs,  until  Prescott  ordered 
his  men  to  retreat. 

The  British  remained  in  possession  of  the  hill  which  they 
had  won  at  a  terrible  cost.  They  had  lost  1054  men,  or  more 
than  one  third  of  their  entire  force.  The  American  loss  was  449 
men,  most  of  whom  were  killed  in  the  hand-to-hand  fighting  of 
the  final  attack.    The  capture  of  the  hill  made  it  possible  for 


THE    DAWNING   OF   INDEPENDENCE 


167 


the  British  army  to  remain  nine  months  longer  in  Boston,  but 
the  moral  effect  of  the  battle  was  wholly  favorable  to  the  Ameri- 
cans. Their  raw  recruits  had  met  and  hurled  back  England's 
brave  veterans,  retreating  only  when  their  ammunition  was 
exhausted.  "I  wish  we  could  sell  them  another  hill  at  the  same 
price/'  exclaimed  General  Nathanael  Greene.  From  now  on, 
there  could  be  no  turning  back.   The  Revolution  was  inevitable, 


hrom  the  Original  by  Trumbull  in  the  Yale  Gallery,  New  Haven. 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 

and  Bunker  Hill  became  a  rallying  cry  for  the  patriots  in  every 
battle  of  the  war. 

The  Second  Continental  Congress.  While  these  stirring 
events  were  taking  place  in  Massachusetts,  the  Second  Conti- 
nental Congress  met  at  Philadelphia  (May  10,  1775).  All  of  the 
colonies  were  represented  by  delegates.  The  First  Continental 
Congress  had  spent  its  time  in  discussion,  in  preparing  petitions 
and  remonstrances.  Lexington  and  Concord  made  it  plain 
that  the  time  for  action  had  come.  So  the  Second  Continental 
Congress  took  charge  of  affairs,  and  governed  the  country 
throughout  the  Revolution.  This  Congress  raised  armies  and 
appointed  generals,  made  treaties  with  foreign  powers,  issued 


168 


THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 


3 


4 


> 


paper  money,  gave  advice  concerning  the  formation  of  state 
governments,  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  drew  up  and  submitted  to  the  states  a  plan  of  union.  In 
short,  the  Second  Continental  Congress  exercised  the  authority 
of  a  national  government  during  the  war,  deriving  its  powers 
only  from  the  common  consent  of  the  people. 

Washington  Chosen  Commander  in  Chief.  Who  should 
be  chosen  to  command  the  untrained  militia  surrounding 
Boston,  now  adopted  by  Congress  as  the  Continental  Army? 
At  the  suggestion  of  John  Adams,  the  choice  fell  upon  George 

Washington  of  Virginia,  who  was 
even  then  sitting  in  Congress  in  his 
colonel's  uniform.  Men  recalled 
that  when  a  youth  of  twenty-one 
years,  Washington  had  made  a  re- 
markable journey  through  the  Penn- 
sylvania wilderness  on  a  dangerous 
mission ;  they  remembered  how  he 
had  saved  from  utter  destruction 
the  wreck  of  Braddock's  army. 
Washington  was  a  stalwart  man, 
over  six  feet  in  stature ;  his  noble 
bearing  and  strong,  handsome  face 
proclaimed  the  moral  qualities  so 
greatly  needed  in  this  hour.  Wise 
and  courageous,  sound  of  judgment 
and  steadfast  in  purpose,  Washington  was  the  fittest  man  in 
America  for  the  great  responsibility  placed  upon  him. 

On  June  21,  1775,  the  new  commander  started  northward 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  scene  of  his  duties.  He  had  ridden 
about  twenty  miles  when  he  met  the  messengers  from  Bunker 
Hill.  "  Did  the  militia  fight?  "  was  his  single  question.  When 
told  how  well  they  had  fought,  he  replied  :  "  Then  the  liberties 
of  the  country  are  safe."  On  July  third,  the  patriot  forces  were 
drawn  up  on  parade  at  Cambridge  ;  and  under  an  elm  tree  which 
is  still  standing,  Washington  drew  his  sword  and  took  formal 
command  of  the  Continental  Army. 


The  Pre -Revolution 
Colonial  Flag 

The  flag  probably  flown  from 
the  main  mast  of  the  Mayflower. 
It  was  authorized  by  James  VI 
of  Scotland,  1603,  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne  of  England  as 
James  I.  It  is  a  combination 
of  the  red  cross  of  St.  George 
for  England  and  the  white  cross 
of  St.  Andrew  for  Scotland. 


THE    DAWNING   OF    INDEPENDENCE 


169 


Capture  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point.  Meantime,  two 
important  British  forts  had  been  captured  by  the  colonists. 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  guarded  the  northern  approaches 
from  Canada  to  the  Hudson  River.  The  Americans  must  secure 
these  strongholds  in  order  to  protect  New  York  against  attack 
from  Canada.  Ethan  Allen,  a  brave  frontiersman  of  Vermont, 
marched  at  the  head  of  his  "  Green  Mountain  Boys"  against 
Ticonderoga.  At  daybreak  of  May  10,  1775,  he  surprised  and 
captured  its  little  garrison  without  striking  a  blow.  Another 
"  Green  Mountain  Boy,"  Seth 
Warner,  seized  Crown  Point  two 
days  later.  With  these  forts  were 
captured  two  hundred  cannon,  to- 
gether with  large  stores  of  musket 
balls  and  powder,  so  greatly  needed 
by  the  patriots. 

The  Invasion  of  Canada.  A  few 
months  later  it  was  learned  that  the 
British  governor  of  Canada,  Sir  Guy 
Carleton,  was  planning  to  recapture 
Ticonderoga.  The  Americans  de- 
termined to  anticipate  him  by  in- 
vading Canada.  Richard  Mont- 
gomery was  sent  by  way  of  Lake 
Champlain  to  attack  Montreal, 
while  Benedict  Arnold  marched 
through  the  wilds  of  Maine  to  strike 
at  Quebec.  Montgomery  captured 
Montreal,  then  pushed  on  to  unite  with  Arnold's  force  before 
Quebec.  The  combined  American  army  numbered  only  1200 
men ;  but  the  intrepid  leaders  determined  on  an  attack.  On 
the  last  day  of  December,  1775,  in  a  blinding  snowstorm,  Mont- 
gomery and  Arnold  made  a  desperate  assault  upon  the  citadel. 
The  brave  Montgomery  was  killed  early  in  the  attack,  and 
Arnold  was  severely  wounded.  After  a  heroic  struggle,  the 
Americans  were  defeated ;  so  the  invasion  of  Canada  came  to 
naught. 


The  First  Navy  Ensign 
The  Cambridge  Flag 

This  flag  was  hoisted  by  John 
Paul  Jones  on  December  3,  1775, 
as  the  navy  ensign  of  the  thirteen 
colonies,  represented  by  thirteen 
stripes.  The  field  consisted  of 
the  original  colonial  flag. 

George  Washington  hoisted  it 
January  2,  1776,  as  the  standard 
of  the  Continental  Army,  and 
it  remained  so  until  the  adoption 
of  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  which 
took  place  June  14,  1777. 


7 


f 


170  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

The  British  Evacuate  Boston.  The  patriot  army  before 
Boston  was  made  up  of  brave  and  determined  men,  but  they 
were  poorly  equipped,  and  without  military  training  or  experi- 
ence. They  now  had  for  their  commander  the  greatest  military 
leader  of  the  age.  On  taking  command,  Washington  at  once 
began  to  organize  and  drill  his  troops,  and  soon  brought  order 
out  of  chaos.  Cannon  were  dragged  on  sledges  all  the  way 
from  Ticonderoga  for  his  use,  and  at  last  Washington  thought 
that  his  army  was  ready  to  strike  a  decisive  blow.  On  the 
night  of  March  4,  1776,  a  furious  cannonade  from  the  American 
batteries  occupied  the  attention  of  the  British.  Under  cover  of 
the  darkness  and  bombardment,  Washington  sent  troops  to 
occupy  Dorchester  Heights,  south  of  Boston.  Earthworks  were 
hastily  thrown  up,  and  next  morning  saw  this  force  in  a  position 
to  bombard  the  town  and  destroy  every  ship  in  the  harbor. 

Howe  feared  to  attack  the  Americans  in  their  strongly 
entrenched  position.  There  was  but  one  other  course,  and  that 
was  to  abandon  Boston.  Accordingly  he  ordered  his  army  on 
board  the  British  men-of-war  in  the  harbor.  Accompanied  by 
about  one  thousand  Loyalists,  or  colonists  who  sided  with  King 
George,  Howe  sailed  for  Halifax  to  await  the  arrival  of  reinforce- 
ments for  his  summer  campaign.  This  was  Washington's  first 
great  stroke  in  the  war,  and  it  was  a  most  successful  one.  With 
the  loss  of  only  a  score  of  men,  he  had  cleared  New  England 
of  the  invading  army.  From  this  time  on,  Boston  and  all  of 
New  England  (except  Newport)  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
colonists. 

The  Movement  for  Independence.  When  the  Revolution 
began,  only  a  few  of  the  more  radical  patriots,  men  like  Samuel 
Adams  and  Patrick  Henry,  were  in  favor  of  separation  from 
Great  Britain.  Washington  himself  wrote :  "  When  I  first  took 
command  of  the  Continental  Army,  I  abhorred  the  idea  of 
independence."  It  was  to  secure  redress  of  grievances,  to 
maintain  their  rights  as  Englishmen,  that  the  colonists  took  up 
arms.  But  by  the  close  of  the  year  1775,  the  tide  of  public 
opinion  in  America  was  setting  strongly  in  favor  of  independ- 
ence.    There  were  several  causes  for  this  change  of  feeling. 


THE    DAWNING   OF   INDEPENDENCE  171 

(1)  Congress  had  sent  to  the  king  an  M  olive-branch  "  peti- 
tion, humbly  asking  for  a  redress  of  grievances.  But  the  king 
refused  even  to  look  at  the  petition,  and  issued  a  proclamation 
denouncing  the  Americans  as  rebels  (August,  1775).  Parliament 
then  passed  an  act  closing  all  American  ports,  and  declaring 
that  the  colonies  had  forfeited  the  protection  of  the  mother 
country. 

(2)  Thomas  Paine's  Common  Sense  led  many  persons  to 
accept  the  author's  plea  for  independence.  This  pamphlet 
stated  the  case  of  the  colonists  in  simple,  plain  language  which 
all  could  understand.  One  hundred  thousand  copies  were  sold 
within  a  few  months.  What  many  men  were  beginning  to  think 
was  here  boldly  stated.  "  Of  what  use  are  kings?"  asked 
Paine.  "  Of  more  worth  is  one  honest  man  to  society  than  all 
the  crowned  ruffians  that  ever  lived.  .  .  .  The  period 
of  debate  is  closed.  Arms,  as  the  last  recourse,  must  decide 
the  contest.  The  appeal  was  the  choice  of  the  king,  and  the 
continent  hath  accepted  the  challenge.' ' 

(3)  The  employment  of  German  soldiers,  called  Hessians,  to 
fight  against  the  colonists  aroused  intense  indignation.  Unable 
to  secure  at  home  the  troops  needed  to  conquer  his  subjects, 
George  III  hired  30,000  soldiers  from  Hesse  Cassel  and  other 
small  German  states.  The  result  was  a  strong  demand 
for  separation  from  the  mother  country  which  hired  foreign 
troops  to  crush  liberty  in  America.  Even  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, this  action  was  strongly  condemned.  Lord  John  Caven- 
dish declared  :  "  This  measure  disgraces  Britain,  and  humiliates 
the  king."  William  Pitt  denounced  it  in  burning  words.  "  If 
I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,"  he  exclaimed, 
"while  a  foreign  troop  was  landed  in  my  country,  I  never  would 
lay  down  my  arms,  —  never,  never,  never !  "  But  Lord  North 
and  George  Grenville  carried  the  proposal  through  Parliament 
on  the  plea  of  necessity ;  some  members  of  the  king's  party 
frankly  admitted  that  they  could  not  procure  British  recruits 
at  any  price  to  fight  against  their  countrymen  in  America. 

Adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  At  every 
fireside  in  America,  the  question  of  independence  was  being 


172 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


Dr 


discussed.  North  Carolina  was  the  first  colony  to  instruct  her 
delegates  in  the  Continental  Congress  to  vote  for  independence. 
Other  colonial  assemblies  soon  followed  her  example.  On  June  7, 
1776,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  acting  on  the  instructions  of  the 
Provincial  Congress  of  Virginia,  introduced  in  the  Continental 


The  Pennsylvania  State  House,  Later  Known  as  Independence  Hall, 
Philadelphia 

Built,  1730,  on  ground  set  apart  by  William  Penn  for  City  Buildings.  Liberty 
Bell  hung  in  tower,  1752  ;  re-cast,  1753  ;  tolled  for  call  to  arms  at  news  of  Concord 
and  Lexington,  April  25,  1775  ;  July  8,  1776,  tolled  for  reading  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence ;  July  8,  1835,  bell  cracked  in  tolling  for  funeral  of  Chief 
Justice  Marshall. 

Independence  Hall  was  the  meeting  place  of  the  Second  Continental  Congress, 
May  10,  1775 ;  after  the  evacuation  of  Philadelphia  by  the  British,  Congress 
returned,  July  2,  1778.  The  Constitutional  Convention  met  here  in  1787.  The 
Supreme  Court  held  its  first  meeting  in  the  low  building  at  the  right,  February  7, 
1791.  Congress  continued  meeting  here  until  it  moved  to  "the  shores  of  the 
Potomac." 

The  statue  of  Commodore  John  Barry  stands  in  the  foreground. 

Congress  his  famous  resolution :  "  That  these  United  Colonies 
are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States ; 
that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown  ; 
and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state 
of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved."     John 


THE   DAWNING   OF   INDEPENDENCE  173 

Adams  of  Massachusetts,  the  "  Atlas  of  Independence," 
seconded  Lee's  motion.  As  some  of  the  delegates  were  not  ready 
to  vote,  the  question  was  postponed  for  three  weeks.  Meantime, 
a  committee  consisting  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  Livingston,  was 
appointed  to  draw  up  a  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia,  then  in  his  thirty-third  year, 
wrote  the  Declaration,  one  of  the  immortal  documents  of 
history.  The  first  part  of  the  Declaration  sets  forth  the  doctrine 
of  political  equality,  and  proclaims  the  right  of  revolution  for 
just  cause.  Next  follows  a  list  of  grievances  which,  the  colonists 
held,  justified  separation  from  the  mother  country.  Then 
comes  the  final  declaration,  which  is  identical  with  the  resolution 
of  Richard  Henry  Lee. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted  by  Congress 
on  the  evening  of  July  4,  1776.  It  was  printed  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Packet  two  days  later,  and  on  July  8  was  read  to  a  large 
crowd  in  the  State  House  yard  at  Philadelphia.  All  over  the 
continent  the  news  was  received  with  rejoicing,  with  the  ring- 
ing of  bells,  with  bonfires  and  torchlight  processions.  "  The 
people,"  said  Samuel  Adams,  "  seem  to  recognize  this  resolu- 
tion as  though  it  were  a  decree  .  .  .  from  Heaven." 
Washington  ordered  the  Declaration  to  be  read  at  the  head  of 
each  brigade  of  his  army.  The  booming  of  cannon  and  cheers 
of  the  soldiers  announced  the  birth  of  a  new  nation. 

How  the  News  Was  Received  in  England.  In  England  many 
former  supporters  of  the  colonists  took  sides  with  the  ministry 
when  the  demand  of  the  Americans  changed  from  redress  to 
independence.  Hence,  when  the  king  opened  Parliament  on 
October  31,  1776,  he  could  say  that  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence had  brought  about  "  the  one  great  advantage  of 
unanimity  at  home."  In  the  same  speech  he  expressed  a  desire 
"  to  restore  to  the  Americans  the  blessings  of  law  and  order." 
But  that  steadfast  friend  of  the  colonists,  Charles  Fox,  did  not 
desert  their  cause.  In  a  speech  which  thrilled  his  hearers  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  Fox  declared  that  the  British  ministry 
itself  was  responsible  for  the  action  of  the  colonists.  "  In  declar- 


174 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


ing  independence,"  said  he,  "  they  have  done  no  more  than  the 
English  did  against  James  II.  If  law  and  liberty  is  to  be 
restored  to  America,  why  was  it  ever  disturbed  ?     Why  did  you 


.  m 


**    «•!     „!•      f. 


From  an  old  print  in  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

The  Boston  State  House 

Colonel  Crafts,  by  order  of  John  Hancock,  President  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, reading  the  Declaration  of  Independence  from  the  balcony,  July  18,  1776. 

The  walls  of  the  present  building  date  from  1748.  In  the  square  before  the 
State  House  the  troops  fired  on  the  people,  March  5,  1770. 

destroy  the  fair  work  of  so  many  ages,  in  order  to  reestablish 
it  by  the  bayonets  of  disciplined  Germans  ?  If  we  are  reduced  to 
the  dilemma  of  conquering  or  abandoning  America,  I  am  for 
abandoning   America." 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE   CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE   MIDDLE   STATES 

The  British  Plan  of  Campaign.  The  loss  of  Boston  was  a 
severe  blow  to  British  pride.  King  George  and  his  ministers 
at  last  realized  that  it  would  not  be  an  easy  task  to  crush  the 
revolt  in  America.  The  British  government  determined  on  a 
new  plan  of  campaign.  The  Middle  States  were  to  be  in- 
vaded by  an  army  so  powerful  that  the  patriots  must  realize 
the  hopelessness  of  further  resistance.  At  the  same  time,  British 
commanders  were  to  offer  the  gracious  pardon  of  the  king  if 
the  colonists  would  return  to  their  allegiance.  Thus  Great 
Britain  "  held  out  the  olive  branch  along  with  the  sword." 

Military  Importance  of  New  York.  For  several  reasons,  the 
control  of  New  York  was  regarded  as  the  key  to  the  military 
situation  in  America: 

(1)  New  York  lay  at  the  gateway  of  the  Hudson,  whose 
long  valley  extends  northward  close  to  the  waters  of  Lake 
George  and  Lake  Champlain.  Thus  the  Hudson  Valley  formed 
a  line  straight  through  the  heart  of  the  country,  separating 
rebellious  New  England  from  the  southern  colonies.  If  the 
British  could  secure  this  line,  the  colonies  would  be  cut  in  two. 
Each  section  could  then  be  crushed  in  turn. 

(2)  New  York  had  the  best  harbor  on  the  coast,  which  would 
afford  a  splendid  base  for  the  landing  of  troops  and  supplies. 
Great  Britain's  powerful  navy  could  aid  and  support  her  army 
in  capturing  the  city. 

(3)  Finally,  in  New  York  and  throughout  the  Middle  States, 
there  were  thousands  of  Tories  or  Loyalists;  who  could  be  relied 
on  to  aid  the  cause  of  the  king. 

The  Battle  of  Long  Island,  August  27,  1776.  Washington 
had  anticipated  this  new  plan  of  campaign.  As  soon  as  the 
British  left  Boston,  he  hurried  his  army  southward  to  protect 

175 


176  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

New  York.  He  had  about  18,000  men  for  the  defense  of  the 
city,  most  of  whom  were  untrained  and  poorly  equipped  militia. 
With  this  force  he  occupied  New  York,  and  threw  up  fortifica- 
tions on  Brooklyn  Heights,  situated  across  the  East  River  on 
Long  Island.  To  the  north,  the  city  was  protected  by  Fort 
Lee  and  Fort  Washington,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Hudson. 
Meantime,  General  Howe  with  a  large  army  had  taken  posses- 
sion of  Staten  Island,  opposite  New  York.  His  brother,  Admiral 
Howe,  held  the  harbor  with  a  powerful  fleet.  In  the  Battle  of 
Long  Island,  Howe  easily  routed  the  American  troops  stationed 
in  front  of  Brooklyn  Heights,  and  drove  them  back  behind  their 
intrenchments.  Mindful  of  Bunker  Hill,  the  British  general 
did  not  attempt  an  assault  on  the  heights.  Washington's  army 
now  seemed  in  a  hopeless  position,  for  the  British  ships  might 
enter  East  River  and  cut  off  his  retreat.  But  under  cover  of 
night  and  fog,  the  fishermen  from  Salem  and  Marblehead  rowed 
the  American  troops  across  the  East  River  to  New  York. 

Washington  Abandons  New  York.  Washington  could  not 
hope  to  defend  New  York  with  Brooklyn  Heights  in  the  hands 
of  the  British.  He  fell  back  to  White  Plains,  where  another 
battle  was  fought.  Again  he  retreated,  this  time  across  the 
Hudson  into  New  Jersey,  so  as  to  place  his  army  between  the 
victorious  British  and  Philadelphia.  That  army  was  fast  losing 
heart  over  its  repeated  defeats.  Many  of  the  militia  had  en- 
listed for  only  six  weeks,  and  as  their  terms  expired,  whole 
companies  left  for  their  homes.  It  seemed  as  if  the  entire 
patriot  army  would  melt  away.  To  make  matters  worse,  the 
British  captured  Fort  Washington  with  its  large  garrison,  and 
seized  Fort  Lee.  Still  Washington's  courage  did  not  fail.  Al- 
though beaten  in  nearly  every  engagement,  he  had  outgeneraled 
his  adversary.  The  line  of  the  Hudson  was  still  in  American 
control,  and  the  patriot  army  was  still  in  existence. 

The  Famous  Retreat  across  New  Jersey.  To  save  that  fast 
dwindling  army  from  capture,  Washington  began  his  famous 
retreat  across  New  Jersey.  General  Charles  Lee,  who  was 
second  in  command,  was  still  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson 
with  7000  men.    Washington  ordered  Lee  to  join  him,  but  that 


THE    CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE    MIDDLE    STATES       177 


Campaigns  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States 

general  disobeyed  orders  and  delayed.  Greatly  outnumbered 
by  the  enemy,  Washington  dared  not  venture  on  a  battle,  but 
fell  back  rapidly  from  place  to  place  until  he  reached  Trenton  on 
the  Delaware.  With  only  3000  men  who  still  followed  their 
devoted  chief,  he  crossed  that  river  into  Pennsylvania.  Corn- 
wallis  was  checked  in  his  pursuit,  for  Washington  had  destroyed 
all  the  boats  along  the  Jersey  shore.  At  Philadelphia,  the  "  rebel 
capital,"  all  was  panic  and  confusion.  The  capture  of  the  city 
seemed  only  a  matter  of  a  few  days.  Congress  in  alarm  re- 
moved to  Baltimore,  but  first  passed  a  resolution  giving  Wash- 


2 


178  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

ington  full  power  "  to  direct  all  things  relative  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  war." 

"  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls  "  was  the  stir- 
ring appeal  of  Thomas  Paine  in  his  new  pamphlet,  The  Crisis. 
"The  summer  soldier  and  the  sunshine  patriot  are  falling 
away."  Falling  away  in  bitter  truth ;  for  nearly  three  thousand 
colonists  grasped  eagerly  at  General  Howe's  offer  of  a  free  par- 
don to  all  who  would  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king. 
Even  Washington  wrote  to  his  brother :  "If  every  nerve  is 
not  strained  to  recruit  the  new  army  ...  I  fear  the 
game  is  pretty  near  up." 

Washington's  Victory  at  Trenton.  The  British  victories  in 
New  York,  followed  by  the  flight  of  the  patriot  army  across 
New  Jersey,  convinced  the  British  commanders  that  the  war 
was  practically  ended.  General  Howe  was  not  fond  of  winter 
campaigns,  and  he  decided  that  it  was  too  late  in  the  season  for 
him  to  occupy  Philadelphia.  So  he  returned  to  New  York, 
leaving  strong  outposts  to  watch  the  broken  army  across  the 
Delaware. 

In  this  dark  hour,  Washington  resolved  to  hazard  all  on 
a  sudden,  bold  stroke.  Trenton  was  defended  by  only  1200 
Hessians.  On  Christmas  night,  1776,  Washington  marched 
down  to  the  Delaware  shore  with  2400  wretchedly  clad  men, 
who  left  bloody  footprints  behind  them  in  the  snow.  Again  the 
Marblehead  fishermen  manned  the  rowboats  and  ferried  the 
troops  through  the  floating  ice  to  the  New  Jersey  shore.  At 
four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  Washington  formed  his  little  army 
in  two  columns,  one  under  Greene,  the  other  under  Sullivan. 
They  marched  the  nine  miles  to  Trenton  through  a  driving 
storm  of  sleet  and  snow.  The  Hessians,  who  had  spent  Christmas 
night  in  feasting  and  drinking,  were  roused  in  the  early  dawn  by 
a  fierce  bayonet  charge.  Colonel  Rail  tried  in  vain  to  rally 
his  men ;  he  was  shot  down,  and  in  less  than  an  hour  the  entire 
Hessian  force  was  surrounded  and  captured.  Washington's 
army  recrossed  the  Delaware  with  a  thousand  prisoners.  This 
brilliant  exploit,  at  a  time  when  all  seemed  lost,  put  new  life 
into  the  patriot  cause. 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE   MIDDLE   STATES       179 

Another  Victory  at  Princeton.  Stirred  to  action  by  the  news 
of  Trenton,  Howe  sent  Cornwallis  to  retake  the  town  and  make 
good  the  defeat.  As  Cornwallis  advanced,  Washington  with- 
drew his  much  smaller  army  beyond  the  Assunpink,  a  small 
river  flowing  into  the  Delaware  just  south  of  Trenton.  Corn- 
wallis thought  he  had  the  American  forces  in  a  trap,  with  a 
superior  force  at  their  front  and  the  broad  Delaware  behind 
them.  He  went  to  bed  in  high  spirits.  "At  last  we  have  run 
down  the  old  fox,"  said  he,  "  and  we  will  bag  him  in  the  morn- 
ing." In  the  morning  the  fox  was  not  there.  Leaving  his  camp- 
fires  burning,  Washington  made  a  midnight  march  around 
the  left  wing  of  the  enemy,  and  gained  the  road  to  Princeton. 
Here  he  routed  three  British  regiments  on  their  way  to  join 
Cornwallis.  At  dawn  that  surprised  general  beheld  a  deserted 
camp.  Even  then  Cornwallis  did  not  know  what  had  happened, 
until  he  heard  the  distant  booming  of  cannon  at  Princeton.  He 
started  in  pursuit,  but  it  was  too  late.  Washington  quickly 
withdrew  to  the  heights  at  Morristown,  west  of  New  York, 
where  his  army  went  into  camp  for  the  winter.  In  three  weeks 
of  sharp  campaigning,  Washington  had  won  two  battles, 
captured  2000  prisoners,  and  recovered  the  state  of  New  Jersey 
from  the  enemy. 

Robert  Morris  and  the  Finances.  The  patriot  army  was 
poorly  fed  and  poorly  clothed ;  worst  of  all,  the  soldiers  were 
not  receiving  their  pay,  so  necessary  to  the  support  of  their 
families.  The  term  of  enlistment  of  the  New  England  troops 
expired  with  the  year  1776,  and  they  were  eager  to  leave  for 
their  homes.  Washington  promised  them  a  bounty  of  ten 
dollars  each  if  they  would  re  enlist,  and  pledged  his  private 
fortune  for  its  payment.  In  this  critical  hour  Washington 
wrote  to  his  friend,  Robert  Morris,  a  wealthy  merchant  of 
Philadelphia,  telling  him  of  his  great  need.  Morris  went  from 
door  to  door  in  Philadelphia  and  raised  $50,000  in  hard  cash  — 
not  paper  money  —  which  he  sent  to  Washington.  In  this  way 
the  army  was  saved,  and  the  victory  of  Princeton  made  possible. 

Congress  soon  afterwards  gave  Morris  the  difficult  task  of 
managing  the  financial  affairs  of  the  Revolution.     It  was  of 


180 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


course  impossible  to  raise  the  large  amounts  of  money  needed 
by  taxing  the  people.  Congress  borrowed  what  it  could  in 
France  and  Holland,  but  relied  chiefly  on  issues  of  paper  money 
stamped  with  its  promise  to  pay  the  bearer  in  gold  or  silver. 
This  Continental  Currency  was  not  secured  by  coin,  so  that  its 

value  depended  on  whatever 
confidence  the  people  had  in 
the  success  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Measured  in  gold,  the 
value  of  the  paper  notes  was 
sometimes  only  a  few  cents. 
Many  thrifty  farmers  in 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania preferred  to  sell  their 
grain  and  cattle  to  the  Brit- 
ish generals  who  paid  in 
gold,  rather  than  to  the  pa- 
triot commanders  who  could 
offer  only  paper  notes. 
Washington  sadly  remarked 
that  it  took  a  wagon  load 
of  paper  money  to  buy  a 
load  of  provisions.  A  barber 
in  Philadelphia  papered  his 
shop  with  the  notes  to  show 
his  contempt  for  them; 
and  "  not  worthy  a  Continental  "  became  a  byword. 

The  Campaign  of  1777.  The  British  government  had  not 
given  up  the  plan  of  securing  the  line  of  the  Hudson,  so  as  to  cut 
off  New  England  from  the  rest  of  the  colonies.  The  campaign 
of  1777,  like  that  of  the  year  before,  had  this  end  in  view.  A 
threefold  attack  was  planned : 

(1)  An  expedition  under  General  St.  Leger  was  to  sail  across 
Lake  Ontario  and  land  at  Oswego.  After  capturing  Fort 
Stanwix,  St.  Leger  was  to  march  down  the  valley  of  the  Mo- 
hawk to  Albany. 

(2)  A  powerful  army  under  General  John  Burgoyne  was  to 


Robert  Morris 

From  the  original  painting  by  Charles 
Willson  Peale  in  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts. 

Robert  Morris  might  well  be  called 
"The  Father  of  Liberty  Loans." 


THE    CAMPAIGNS    IN    THE    MIDDLE    STATES       181 

move  south  from  Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  and 
advance  on  Albany. 

(3)  General  Howe  was  to  advance  northward  from  New  York 
and  unite  with  Burgoyne's  army. 

The  fate  of  the  Revolution  turned  on  this  campaign.  For 
the  British,  success  meant  the  division  of  the  colonies ;  failure, 
that  France  would  no  longer  hesitate  to  form  an  open  alliance 
with  the  patriots. 

General  Herkimer  at  Oriskany.  The  first  British  expedition 
met  with  complete  disaster.  St.  Leger  reached  Oswego,  and 
with  his  Indian  and  Loyalist  allies  laid  siege  to  Fort  Stanwix. 
The  veteran  General  Herkimer  with  a  few  hundred  pioneers 
went  to  its  relief.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Oriskany,  he  fell  into  an 
ambush  of  the  British  and  their  Indian  allies.  Herkimer  was 
mortally  wounded  early  in  the  action,  but  propped  up  with  his 
saddle  against  a  tree,  the  old  hero  continued  to  direct  the  battle. 
After  five  hours  of  hard  fighting,  his  men  were  victorious. 
General  Benedict  Arnold  soon  afterwards  came  to  the  relief 
of  Fort  Stanwix.  St.  Leger  then  made  a  disorderly  retreat  to 
Canada,  with  a  beaten  and  broken  army.  One  part  of  the 
northern  invasion  had  failed. 

Burgoyne's  Invasion.  Setting  out  from  Canada  with  8000 
men,  General  Burgoyne  captured  the  powerful  fortress  of  Ti- 
conderoga,  and  sent  an  exulting  message  to  England  announcing 
his  success.  From  this  point  on,  his  advance  was  more  difficult. 
The  Americans  under  General  Schuyler  called  the  wilderness 
to  their  aid.  They  cut  down  trees,  burned  the  bridges,  filled 
the  waterways  with  stones  and  logs,  and  stripped  the  country 
of  cattle  and  provisions.  Burgoyne  had  to  cut  new  roads 
through  the  swamp  and  rebuild  many  bridges.  It  took  him 
twenty-four  days  to  march  the  twenty-six  miles  to  Fort  Edward. 
Meantime,  the  inhuman  conduct  of  Burgoyne's  Indian  allies 
roused  the  frontiersmen  of  the  north  as  nothing  else  could  have 
done.  In  desperate  need  of  food  for  his  troops  and  of  horses 
to  draw  his  cannon,  Burgoyne  sent  a  force  of  Hessians  to  raid 
the  country.  At  Bennington  they  were  met' by  Colonel  John 
Stark,  the  hero  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Trenton.     In  a  hard-fought 


182  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

engagement,  the  New  England  militia  routed  the  Hessians,  and 
captured  several  hundred  prisoners. 

The  Battles  of  Saratoga.  Anxiously  Burgoyne  awaited  news 
from  General  Howe,  who  was  supposed  to  come  to  his  aid  from 
New  York.  Through  a  strange  oversight  on  the  part  of  the 
British  War  Office,  Howe  did  not  receive  the  order  to  advance 
up  the  Hudson.  So  without  concerning  himself  about  Burgoyne, 
Howe  took  his  army  south  to  attack  Philadelphia.  Burgoyne 
was  left  to  grapple  alone  with  the  foes  who  were  fast  surrounding 
him.  With  an  army  reduced  to  5000  men,  he  crossed  to  the 
west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  near  Saratoga.  From  this  point  he 
hoped  to  fight  his  way  through  to  Albany.  Directly  across  his 
line  of  march  was  the  patriot  army,  16,000  strong,  under  the 
command  of  General  Gates.  The  American  forces  occupied 
a  strong  position  at  Bemis  Heights,  guarding  the  road  to  Albany. 
Here  Burgoyne  lost  many  men  in  a  stubbornly  contested  fight, 
without  gaining  any  advantage. 

About  two  weeks  later,  the  British  made  another  attack 
upon  the  army  of  General  Gates.  This  second  battle  of  Saratoga 
was  a  decisive  victory  for  the  patriots.  Burgoyne  retreated  to 
Saratoga,  but  he  was  hemmed  in  on  all  sides.  His  army  was 
suffering  from  hunger  and  fatigue,  his  hospital  filled  with  sick 
and  wounded  men.  Howe  had  failed  him,  his  position  was  hope- 
less ;  and  on  October  17,  1777,  he  surrendered  his  entire  army 
of  5000  men  to  General  Gates.  Thus  Burgoyne's  expedition, 
the  most  important  sent  by  Great  Britain  against  her  revolted 
colonies,  was  completely  wrecked.  The  battle  of  Saratoga  is 
numbered  by  the  British  historian  Creasy  among  the  fifteen 
decisive  battles  of  the  world.  It  marked  the  turning  point  of 
the  Revolution,  for  Europe  was  now  convinced  that  Great 
Britain  could  not  conquer  her  rebellious  colonies.  Saratoga 
inspired  the  patriots  all  over  America.  Most  important  of  all, 
it  induced  France  to  ally  herself  openly  with  the  cause  of  the 
patriots. 

Our  Appeal  to  Europe  for  Aid.  Soon  after  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  envoys  were  sent  to  Europe  to  secure  the 
alliance  of  any  nations  who  might  be  interested  in  the  cause  of 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE   MIDDLE   STATES       183 


American  liberty.  Some  of  the  envoys  were  not  even  admitted 
to  the  capitals  of  the  countries  to  which  they  were  sent ;  others 
received  only  good  words.  Sent  to  Prussia,  Arthur  Lee  reached 
the  capital,  but  King  Frederick  refused  to  see  him.  "  There  is 
no  name,"  Lee  wrote  appealingly,  "  so  highly  respected  among 
us  as  that  of  your  Majesty.  Hence  there  is  no  King  the  declara- 
tion of  whose  friendship  would  inspire  our  people  with  so  much 
courage."      But  much  as  he  hated  England,  Frederick  would 


From  an  old  engraving. 


Franklin  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XVI 

Franklin  was  received  as  ambassador  December  21,  1776.     Aided  by  Arthur 
Lee  and  Silas  Deane,  he  concluded  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  France. 

do  nothing  to  aid  the  colonists ;  if  he  did  so,  he  said,  the  result 
would  be  "  much  inconvenience  "  for  himself.  He  did  permit 
Lee  to  see  his  army,  numbering  over  200,000  men.  Our  envoy 
wrote  home  that  this  army  was  without  its  peer  in  Europe,  but 
that  it  was  "  only  a  machine,  disciplined  by  force  and  caning." 
France  Becomes  Our  Ally.  Only  one  country  in  Europe 
responded  to  our  appeal  for  aid.  That  country  was  France, 
and  her  action  was  due  chiefly  to  the  growing  love  of  liberty 
among  her  own  people.     Braving  the  danger  of  capture  by 


2 


184  THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 

British  warships,  Benjamin  Franklin  and  two  other  American 
commissioners  arrived  in  Paris  late  in  the  year  1776.  Then  past 
seventy  years  of  age,  the  genial,  witty  Franklin  became  very 
popular  at  the  court  of  Louis  XVI,  and  won  the  warm  friendship 
of  the  French  people.  France  had  secretly  aided  the  colonists 
with  money  and  supplies  almost  from  the  outset.  After  Bur- 
goyne's  surrender,  she  was  ready  to  form  an  open  alliance. 
A  treaty  was  signed  February  6,  1778,  by  which  France  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  the  United  States,  and  each  country 
promised  to  make  war  on  the  enemies  of  the  other.  The  treaty 
of  alliance  made  certain  the  success  of  the  Revolution ;  without 
it,  the  final  victory  must  have  been  at  least  doubtful.  France 
not  only  aided  the  patriots  with  guns,  ammunition,  and  clothing, 
but  she  finally  sent  to  America  a  large  army  and  a  powerful 
fleet.  Great  Britain  immediately  declared  war  on  France,  and 
soon  afterwards  on  Spain,  the  ally  of  France.  Two  years  later 
found  Holland  also  numbered  among  her  enemies.  Thus  three 
powerful  European  nations  were  in  arms  against  Great  Britain. 

The  news  of  Burgoyne's  surrender  and  of  the  French  alli- 
ance was  a  terrible  blow  to  Great  Britain.  Even  King  George 
and  his  ministers  were  ready  to  make  concessions.  Parliament 
repealed  its  oppressive  measures,  gave  up  the  right  to  tax  the 
colonies,  and  was  ready  to  promise  them  representation  in  the 
British  Parliament.  These  offers  came  too  late.  By  the  time 
Lord  North's  peace  commissioners  reached  America,  Great 
Britain  had  a  war  with  France  on  her  hands,  as  well  as  one  with 
the  patriots.  Congress  refused  to  listen  to  any  offer  except  that 
of  complete  independence. 

Battles  of  the  Brandywine  and  Germantown.  It  was  in  June, 
1777,  that  Burgoyne  started  from  Canada  on  his  disastrous 
campaign.  In  the  same  month,  Howe  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  march  across  New  Jersey  to  Philadelphia.  He  was 
checked  by  Washington,  who  placed  his  army  in  so  strong  a 
position  that  Howe  retreated  to  New  York.  The  British  general 
then  decided  to  reach  Philadelphia  by  sea.  He  landed  at  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  with  a  large  army,  planning  to  march 
overland  to  Philadelphia.    Washington  met  him  in  September 


THE    CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE   MIDDLE   STATES       185 

at  Chad's  Ford  on  the  Brandywine,  but  the  American  army 
was  defeated  after  a  sharp  struggle.  Washington  could  now 
only  delay  Howe's  advance,  and  the  British  occupied  Phila- 
delphia on  September  26,  1777.  Congress  had  fled  some  days 
before  to  Lancaster.  Apparently  the  defeated  patriots  had  not 
lost  heart,  for  a  few  weeks  later  Washington  made  a  sudden 
attack  on  the  British  at  Germantown.  Taken  by  surprise, 
Howe's  men  were  at  first  driven  back  in  confusion.  But  in  the 
dense  fog,  one  brigade  of  the  American  army  fired  on  another 
by  mistake,  and  Washington  was  obliged  to  retreat,  having 
just  missed  a  great  victory. 

The  Suffering  at  Valley  Forge.  After  another  month  of 
skirmishing,  the  patriot  army  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
Valley  Forge,  a  hilly  region  about  twenty  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia.  While  Howe's  army  was  comfortably  housed  in 
the  Quaker  City,  Washington's  men  suffered  terrible  hardships 
in  their  cheerless  camp.  The  French  supplies  had  not  yet 
arrived ;  and  Washington  wrote  to  Congress  that  he  had  3000 
soldiers  "  unfit  for  duty,  because  they  are  barefoot,  and  other- 
wise naked."  Men  died  for  want  of  straw  to  put  between 
themselves  and  the  cold  ground  on  which  they  lay.  Food  was 
scarce,  and  hunger  added  to  the  pain  of  the  cold.  Valley  Forge 
was  indeed  "  an  epic  of  slow  suffering  silently  borne,  of  patient 
heroism,  and  of  a  very  bright  and  triumphant  outcome." 

Distinguished  Volunteers  from  Europe.  From  this  winter 
of  hardship  and  suffering,  good  was  to  come.  Baron  von 
Steuben,  a  Prussian  officer  of  Frederick  the  Great,  drilled  and 
organized  these  ragged  troops,  and  taught  them  the  tactics  for 
which  the  Prussian  soldiers  had  become  famous.  At  last  Wash- 
ington's men  had  discipline  and  organization  as  well  as  courage. 
The  Continental  Army  was  never  again  beaten  in  any  battle 
where  its  great  leader  commanded.  There  were  other  foreign 
officers  who,  like  Von  Steuben,  came  to  aid  the  patriots.  One  of 
these  was  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  a  young  French  nobleman 
who  left  his  wife  and  child  to  serve  the  American  cause  as  a 
volunteer.  At  the  request  of  Washington,  Congress  gave  Lafay- 
ette a  high  command,  although  he  was  only  twenty  years  old ; 


Washington  and  Baron  von  Steuben  at  Valley  Forge 

Von  Steuben  made  his  first  visit  to  Valley  Forge,  February  23,  1778.  Wash- 
ington appointed  him  Inspector-General,  March  28.  During  the  winter 
months,  despite  the  hardships  —  lack  of  food,  clothing,  and  warm  shelter  — 
the  army  was  drilled  into  an  effective  fighting  force. 


186 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   IN   THE   MIDDLE    STATES       187 


and  his  services  form  a  noble  chapter  in  the  history  of  the 
Revolution.  With  Lafayette  came  the  brave  Baron  de  Kalb, 
who  fell  covered  with  wounds  at  Camden.  Nor  should  we 
forget  the  Polish  officers,  Kosciuszko  and  Pulaski,  both  of  whom 
gave  up  their  lives  fighting  for  the  liberty  of  America. 

The  Plot  to  Remove  Washington.  During  this  winter,  some 
of  Washington's  enemies  formed  a  plot  to  remove  him  as 
commander  in  chief.  The 
leader  in  this  conspiracy  was 
Conway,  a  foreign  officer 
disappointed  because  Wash- 
ington had  opposed  his  pro- 
motion. Washington's  en- 
emies contrasted  his  defeats 
at  the  Brandywine  and 
Germantown  with  the  bril- 
liant victory  of  Gates  at 
Saratoga.  The  attempt  to 
ruin  Washington  failed 
miserably,  as  it  deserved. 
Conway  resigned  from  the 
army,  while  Gates  suffered 
in  public  opinion  from  his 
connection   with    the    con- 


Marquis  de  Lafayette 


From  an  old  print  made  during  his  last  visit 
to  America  as  the  "  Nation's  Guest,"  1824. 


spiracy. 

The  Battle  of  Monmouth, 
June,  1778.  The  news  that  a  French  fleet  was  coming  to 
America  compelled  the  British  to  abandon  Philadelphia,  and 
concentrate  their  forces  at  New  York.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  had 
by  this  time  succeeded  General  Howe  in  chief  command.  Since 
the  sea  was  no  longer  free  for  the  safe  transport  of  British 
troops,  Clinton  had  to  march  his  army  overland  through  New 
Jersey.  He  was  closely  pursued  by  Washington,  who  overtook 
his  rear  guard  at  Monmouth  ;  and  only  the  treachery  of  Charles 
Lee  prevented  the  destruction  of  the  British  army.  That  officer 
was  to  lead  the  attacking  division,  but  scarcely  had  he  come 
within  sight  of  the  British,  when  he  ordered  his  men  to  retreat. 


188  THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 

Only  Washington's  timely  arrival  at  the  front  saved  his  army. 
Monmouth  was  a  drawn  battle,  from  which  Clinton  was  glad  to 
retreat  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  "  Clinton  gained  no  advantage 
except  to  reach  New  York  with  the  wreck  of  his  army,"  was  the 
comment  of  Frederick  across  the  sea.  "  America  is  probably  lost 
for  England." 

The  Loyalists  or  Tories.  The  patriot  cause  did  not  have 
the  support  of  all  the  people  in  the  colonies.  It  is  estimated  that 
at  least  one  third  of  the  colonists  remained  faithful  to  the  king. 
The  Loyalists,  or  Tories  as  they  were  called  by  the  patriot  party, 
were  most  numerous  in  the  Middle  States  and  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia.  They  were  usually  headed  by  men  who  held  office 
under  the  king.  The  patriots  denounced  them  as  traitors. 
As  the  Revolution  continued,  the  mutual  hatred  of  patriots 
and  Loyalists  became  more  bitter.  Sometimes  the  Loyalists 
were  tarred  and  feathered ;  their  houses  and  barns  were  often 
burned,  while  the  owners  were  driven  from  their  homes  and  their 
property  confiscated.  New  York  State  alone  seized  Loyalist 
property  to  the  value  of  $3,000,000;  in  return,  New  York 
Loyalists  to  the  number  of  15,000  enlisted  in  the  British  army 
and  navy.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  thousands  of  Loyalists 
settled  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and  Great  Britain,  not 
daring  to  return  to  their  old  homes.  They  founded  Ontario 
in  Canada,  and  helped  to  settle  New  Brunswick  and  Nova 
Scotia.  They  became,  as  one  Canadian  writer  says,  the  makers 
of  Canada ;  and  thirty  years  later,  the  descendants  of  these 
Loyalists  formed  a  stone  wall  of  defense  against  our  attempted 
invasion  of  that  country. 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE    CLOSING   YEARS    OF   THE    REVOLUTION 

Indian  Outrages  on  the  Northern  Frontier.  Throughout  the 
Revolution,  the  fierce  Iroquois  tribes  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mohawk  fought  on  the  side  of  the  British ;  and  terrible  was  the 
warfare  of  these  savage  allies.  Many  a  sturdy  frontiersman  had 
shouldered  his  musket  to  join  Washington's  army,  leaving  the 
pioneer  settlements  almost  defenseless.  Indians  and  Loyalists 
now  united  in  savage  raids  on  the  unprotected  frontier.  In 
the  summer  of  1778,  the  beautiful  Wyoming  Valley  in  north- 
eastern Pennsylvania  was  the  scene  of  a  fearful  massacre.  The 
village  of  Cherry  Valley  in  central  New  York  was  burned  a  few 
months  later,  and  fifty  of  its  inhabitants  were  put  to  death 
after  horrible  tortures.  To  avenge  these  massacres,  Washington 
sent  General  Sullivan  with  5000  men  against  the  Iroquois. 
Sullivan  defeated  a  combined  force  of  Indians  and  Loyalists 
near  the  present  site  of  Elmira,  New  York.  He  then  laid  waste 
the  country  of  the  Iroquois,  destroying  their  crops  and  burning 
their  villages.  The  Indian  power  was  checked  but  for  two 
years  longer  the  tomahawk  and  firebrand  continued  to  desolate 
the  Mohawk  Valley. 

Border  Warfare  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  South  of  the 
Ohio,  bold  pioneers  from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  had 
pushed  westward  through  the  Alleghenies,  settling  in  the  region 
now  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The  westward  advance  of  these 
backwoodsmen  was  stubbornly  contested  by  the  Indians, 
whose  savage  raids  gave  Kentucky  its  name  of  the  "  dark  and 
bloody  ground."  Men  like  Daniel  Boone  in  Kentucky,  and 
Sevier  and  Robertson  in  Tennessee,  could  not  be  held  back, 
although  for  years  their  little  settlements  were  subject 
to  all  the  horrors  of  Indian  attack.     The  British  commander 

189 


190 


THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 


at  Detroit,  Sir  Henry  Hamilton,  was  responsible  for  many  of 
these  raids.  During  the  years  1776-1777,  he  made  every  effort 
to  unite  all  the  western  tribes  in  a  general  attack  upon  our 
frontier.  If  the  American  pioneers  could  be  driven  east  of  the 
Alleghenies,  the  vast  region  between  the  mountains  and  the 
Mississippi  would  be  saved  to  the  British  crown. 

George  Rogers  Clark  Conquers  the  Northwest.     The  boldest 
defender  of  the  Kentucky  frontier  was  George  Rogers  Clark,  a 

young  Virginian  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  a  born  leader 
of  men.  Clark  formed  the 
idea  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
raids  and  massacres  by  at- 
tacking the  real  enemy  be- 
hind the  Indians.  He  de- 
termined to  drive  the  British 
garrisons  from  the  entire 
Northwest  Territory ;  that 
is,  out  of  the  region  between 
the  Ohio  River  and  the 
Great  Lakes.  Governor 
Patrick  Henry  of  Virginia 
approved  the  plan,  and 
Clark  raised  a  small  force  of 
hunters  and  Indian  fighters 
for  his  expedition.  He  em- 
barked his  little  army  on 
flatboats  at  a  point  near 
Pittsburgh,  and  floated  down  the  Ohio  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Cumberland.  Landing  his  men,  Clark  made  a  rapid  march  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  across  the  country  to  Kaskaskia. 
On  the  evening  of  July  4,  1778,  the  British  garrison  at  Kaskaskia 
was  surprised  and  captured.  Other  towns  in  southwestern 
Illinois  now  hastened  to  surrender.  Even  Vincennes  on  the 
Wabash,  the  most  important  British  post  in  the  Ohio  Valley, 
raised  the  American  flag.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  these 
towns  were  Frenchmen,  who  readily  accepted  American  rule 


George  Rogers  Clark 

From  the  original  painting  by  John 
Wesley  Jarvis  in  the  Virginia  State  Li- 
brary, Richmond. 


THE   CLOSING   YEARS   OP   THE    REVOLUTION      191 


when  they  learned  from  Clark  that  France  had  become  our  ally. 
With  only  200  men,  this  intrepid  leader  wrested  from  British 
control  a  territory  nearly  as  large  as  the  entire  thirteen  colonies. 

Clark's  Expedition  against  Vincennes.  Imagine  the  surprise 
of  General  Hamilton  at  Detroit  when  he  heard  this  amazing 
news !  Setting  out  from  Detroit,  Hamilton  soon  recaptured 
Vincennes,  and  made  ready  to  crush  the  daring  adventurer  at 
Kaskaskia  (December,  1778).  Clark  did  not  wait  for  Hamil- 
ton's attack,  which  was  to  be  made  the  following  spring.  With 
a  little  band  of  men,  he  set  out  in  the  dead  of  winter  to  strike 
his  enemy  at  Vincennes.  In  sixteen  days  Clark  made  a  wonder- 
ful march  of  over  two  hundred  miles  across  flooded  lowlands  and 
swollen  streams.  For  the  last  four  miles  his  men  waded  in 
water,  sometimes  breast  high.  They  marched  Indian  file, 
the  dauntless  Clark  in  advance,  with  twenty-five  men  told  off 
in  the  rear  to  shoot  any  who  tried  to  turn  back.  The  fort  at 
Vincennes  could  not  withstand  such  a  leader.  On  February  24, 
1779,  Hamilton  and  his  garrison  surrendered  as  prisoners  of  war. 

George  Rogers  Clark  won  by  these  victories  the  proud  title  of 
"  the  conqueror 


of  the  North- 
west." More 
than  this,  he 
won  for  his 
country  the 
Mississippi  in- 
stead of  the 
Alleghenies  as 
its  western 
boundary ;  for 
when  the  treaty  i 
of    peace    was 

signed,  Great  Britain  recognized  our  claim  to  the  western 
territory,  of  which  we  held  possession.  Thus  the  attempt  of 
the  British  to  push  back  the  American  frontier  failed  utterly, 
and  Clark's  victories  opened  the  way  for  the  march  of  the 
American  people  across  the  continent. 


The  West  During  the  Revolution 


'! 


192  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

The  War  on  the  Sea.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
the  colonists  had  no  warships,  while  Great  Britain  ruled  the 
sea  with  the  strongest  navy  in  the  world.  Throughout  the 
struggle,  Great  Britain's  powerful  fleets  gave  invaluable  aid 
and  support  to  her  armies.  To  overcome  this  handicap,  Congress 
in  1775  ordered  the  construction  of  thirteen  small  ships  of  war. 
In  this  way  the  American  navy  had  its  beginning.  Congress 
also  ordered  private  shipowners  "  to  distress  the  enemies  of  the 
United  States  by  sea  or  land."  Vessels  acting  under  these 
orders  were  called  privateers;  they  had  authority  to  attack 
the  enemy's  vessels,  to  capture  and  sell  prizes,  and  do  all  things 
that  regular  men-of-war  might  do.  More  than  two  thousand 
of  these  privateers  ranged  the  seas  and  wrought  havoc  with 
British  commerce.  They  cruised  up  and  down  the  Atlantic 
coast,  swarmed  in  the  West  Indies,  and  even  dared  to  attack 
their  prey  in  the  English  Channel  and  the  North  Sea.  Three 
hundred  British  ships  were  captured  in  the  first  year  of  the  war. 
The  bold  daring  of  these  privateers  made  up,  in  part,  for  our 
lack  of  a  navy. 

John  Paul  Jones  and  His  Great  Victory.  Many  gallant 
officers  and  sailors  won  fame  in  the  little  navy  which  was 
gradually  built ;  but  foremost  of  these  was  John  Paul  Jones.  In 
his  ship,  the  Ranger,  Jones  made  a  bold  descent  on  the  coast 
of  Scotland  and  England,  spreading  terror  among  the  seaport 
towns.  At  length  the  French  government  placed  under  his 
command  a  little  squadron  of  five  ships.  The  largest  was  an 
old  East  India  merchantman,  now  converted  into  a  man-of-war. 
Jones  named  this  ship  the  Bon  Homme  Richard,  in  honor  of 
Benjamin  Franklin.  Her  decks  were  too  weak  for  guns,  her 
guns  were  too  old  for  service,  and  her  crew  was  a  mixed  one  of 
many  nationalities ;  but  her  commander  knew  how  to  fight. 

Sailing  along  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  Jones 
captured  many  prizes.  Off  Flamborough  Head,  in  northeastern 
England,  he  came  up  with  a  British  frigate,  the  Serapis.  About 
seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  two  vessels  began  a  deadly 
combat  that  continued  far  into  the  night.  During  the  action, 
the  fire  from  the  American  ship  slackened.   The  British  captain 


THE    CLOSING    YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      193 


called  out,  "Have  you  struck  your  colors?  "  "  I  have  not 
begun  to  fight ! "  rang  out  the  reply  from  Jones.  After  repeated 
efforts,  Jones  brought  his  vessel  alongside  the  Serapis,  and  with 
his  own  hands  lashed  the  two  ships  together.  His  men  climbed 
into  the  rigging  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  shot  down 
every  man  who  showed  himself  on  the  deck  of  the  British  frigate. 
Finally  a  hand  grenade  was  thrown  into  the  main  hatchway  of  the 
Serapis,  causing  an  explo- 
sion which  killed  twenty  of 
her  crew.  By  this  time  the 
Serapis  was  on  fire  in  several 
places,  and  her  brave  com- 
mander was  forced  to  strike 
his  colors.  The  Bon  Homme 
Richard  was  in  still  worse 
plight ;  she  had  been  burn- 
ing for  half  an  hour  and 
was  fairly  riddled  with  can- 
non shot.  Jones  transferred 
his  men  to  the  defeated 
Serapis,  and  two  days  later 
his  battered  flagship  sank. 
By  this  splendid  victory, 
Jones  humbled  the  mis- 
tress of  the  seas,  and  won 
the  admiration  of  the 
world. 

Clinton's  Army  at  New  York.  Except  for  a  campaign  in  the 
South  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Savannah,  the  British 
did  not  attempt  any  important  movements  in  the  years  1778 
and  1779.  France  and  Spain  kept  Great  Britain  occupied  in 
defending  Gibraltar  and  her  rich  islands  in  the  West  Indies. 
After  his  retreat  from  Monmouth,  Clinton's  army  remained 
cooped  up  in  New  York ;  while  from  the  highlands  of  the 
Hudson,  Washington  kept  a  vigilant  watch  upon  Clinton's 
movements.  That  general  contented  himself  with  sending  out 
small  detachments  to  raid  the  defenseless  towns  along  the  coast 


John  Paul  Jones 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Charles 
Willson  Peale  in  Independence  Hall, 
Philadelphia. 


194 


THE    CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      195 

of  New  England,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia.  These  expeditions 
failed  to  tempt  Washington  southward,  as  Clinton  perhaps  hoped. 

Of  more  danger  to  the  patriots  was  Clinton's  seizure  of 
the  strong  forts  at  Stony  Point  and  Verplanck's  Point,  which 
guarded  the  upper  Hudson.  The  capture  of  these  forts  threat- 
ened the  American  stronghold  farther  up  the  Hudson  at  West 
Point.  Washington  determined  to  recapture  Stony  Point ;  and 
for  this  task  he  chose  General  Anthony  Wayne,  named  "  Mad 
Anthony  "  by  the  soldiers  for  his  desperate  valor.  Twelve 
hundred  picked  men  were  placed  under  Wayne's  command. 
At  midnight  on  July  15,  1779,  with  unloaded  guns  and  fixed 
bayonets,  they  stormed  up  the  slope  at  Stony  Point  and 
captured  its  garrison.  About  a  month  later,  "  Light  Horse 
Harry  "  Lee  surprised  and  captured  the  British  fort  at  Paulus 
Hook,  where  Jersey  City  now  stands.  The  seizure  of  these 
strong  redoubts  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  proved  that  the 
discipline  of  Valley  Forge  was  bearing  fruit. 

The  Treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  Following  the  story  of 
these  daring  exploits  comes  the  dark  page  of  Arnold's  treason. 
Benedict  Arnold  was  one  of  the  bravest  officers  in  the  American 
army.  With  Montgomery  he  had  led  the  desperate  assault  upon 
Quebec,  and  he  shared  with  Morgan  the  laurels  of  Saratoga. 
Unfortunately,  Congress  was  slow  to  recognize  his  services, 
while  promoting  other  officers  far  less  deserving.  At  last  Ar- 
nold's enemies  in  Congress  accused  him  of  dishonesty  while  in 
command  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  A  court  martial  acquitted 
him  of  the  more  serious  charges,  but  found  him  guilty  of  im- 
prudent conduct.  He  was  sentenced  to  receive  a  reprimand 
from  the  commander  in  chief,  but  Washington  gave  the  reproof 
in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  blame  into  praise,  for  he  felt  that 
Arnold  was  being  persecuted.  Enraged  at  his  unjust  treatment 
and  lack  of  recognition,  Arnold  determined  to  betray  the  cause 
he  served.  He  asked  Washington  to  place  him  in  command 
of  West  Point,  the  key  to  the  Hudson.  His  request  was  readily 
granted,  whereupon  Arnold  offered  to  betray  this  stronghold 
to  General  Clinton.  For  this  treason  he  was  to  receive  $30,000, 
and  a  major-general's  commission  in  the  British  army. 


196 


THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 


X 


Capture  of  Andre  and  Flight  of  Arnold.  To  conclude  the 
details  of  the  infamous  bargain,  Clinton  sent  his  young  adjutant, 
Major  John  Andre,  to  meet  Arnold  at  West  Point.  It  was 
arranged  that  Clinton  should  come  up  the  Hudson  with  a  part 
of  his  fleet,  whereupon  Arnold  would  surrender  West  Point. 
Washington  was  then  to  be 


urged  to  bring  up  reinforce- 
ments to  certain  destruction. 
The  plot  was  now  complete ; 
Arnold  furnished  Andre  with 
plans  of  the  fort  and  a  pass 
through  the  American  lines. 
Having  changed  his  scarlet 
uniform  for  citizen's  clothes, 
Andre  attempted  to  reach 
New  York  by  riding  down 
the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson. 
As  he  neared  Tarrytown,  he 
was  arrested  by  three  Ameri- 
cans. The  papers  hidden 
in  his  boots  disclosed  the 
whole  wretched  plot.  The 
unfortunate  young  officer 
was  promptly  hanged  as  a 
spy,  and  West  Point  was  saved  to  the  Americans. 

Arnold  received  warning  of  Andre's  capture  in  time  to 
escape  on  board  a  British  warship.  "  Whom  can  we  trust  now  ?  " 
cried  Washington  to  his  officers  as  he  rode  into  West  Point  a 
few  hours  later.  Arnold  received  his  promised  reward,  but 
found  that  he  had  sold  himself  cheaply  after  all.  He  had 
earned  the  contempt  of  all  honest  men,  and  his  last  days  in 
London  were  filled  with  remorse. 

The  War  in  the  South,  1778-1781.  Great  Britain  had  failed 
to  conquer  New  England,  and  Burgoyne's  surrender  meant  the 
loss  of  the  Middle  States.  As  a  last  resort,  the  British  govern- 
ment planned  to  conquer  America  from  the  South.  Georgia 
was  thinly  populated,  and  could  offer  slight  resistance;  while 


The  Liberty  Bell 


THE   CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      197 


Campaigns  in  the  Southern  States 
Routes  taken  by  Gates,  Greene,  Lafayette,  Washington,  and  Cornwallis. 

in  the  Carolinas  there  were  many  Loyalists  who  would  rally 
to  the  cause  of  the  king.  The  new  plan  of  campaign  began  well. 
The  British  captured  Savannah  in  1778,  and  soon  all  of  Georgia 
was  under  their  control. 

To  complete  the  conquest  of  the  South,  Clinton  and  Corn- 
wallis sailed  from  New  York  with  an  army  of  8000  men.  They 
marched  against  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  which  was  de- 


198 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


t 


fended  by  Continental  troops.      General  Lincoln  made  the 
mistake  of  attempting  to  hold  the  city  against  overwhelming 

odds.  He  was  soon  forced 
to  surrender  Charleston, 
and  his  entire  army  be- 
came prisoners.  South 
Carolina,  like  Georgia, 
now  lay  prostrate  be- 
fore the  enemy.  General 
Clinton  returned  to  New 
York,  leaving  Cornwallis 
to  complete  the  conquest. 
This  promised  to  be  an 
easy  task,  for  Lincoln's 
surrender  left  the  South 
without  an  army  to  meet 
the  invader. 

Partisan  Warfare  of 
Marion  and  Sumter.  The 
spirit  of  southern  patriot- 
ism was  not  conquered. 
Marion,  Sumter,  and 
Pickens  organized  bands 
of  resolute  men,  whose  ir- 
regular warfare  kept  alive 
the  spirit  of  independence. 
With  less  than  a  hundred 
followers,  Marion  and 
Sumter  would  make  a 
sudden,  desperate  assault 
upon  some  British  out- 
post, cut  off  supplies,  or 
strike  fiercely  at  a  column 
of  Loyalist  recruits.  Then 
as  suddenly  the  " rangers"  would  disappear  in  the  dense  swamp 
or  mountain  defile,  only  to  reappear  for  a  new  attack  at  some 
point  far  distant.     There  was  no  hardship  which  these  men 


St.  Michael's  Church,  Charleston 

Built  in  1752.  Tower  painted  black'during 
the  Revolution  in  the  vain  hope  it  would  es- 
cape the  notice  of  the  British  fleet  sailing 
along  the  coast  in  search  of  Charleston.  The 
British  took  the  bells  to  London  in  1782,  but 
they  were  returned  the  next  year. 


THE    CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      199 

would  not  endure,  no  •  enterprise  too  desperate  for  them  to 
attempt.  Thrilling  stories  of  their  valor  are  still  told  by  the 
people  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

Gates  and  the  Disaster  at  Camden,  August  16,  1780.  With- 
out the  aid  of  regular  troops,  these  brave  patriots  could  not 
hope  to  dislodge  the  British  army.  Washington  wished  to  send 
General  Greene  to  aid  the  South,  but  Congress  preferred 
Horatio  Gates.  Two  thousand  of  the  Maryland  and  Delaware 
troops  were  placed  under  his  command,  and  he  was  reinforced 
by  militia  from  North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  Gates  soon  showed 
how  little  he  deserved  the  fame  so  easily  won  at  Saratoga. 
Without  waiting  to  organize  and  equip  his  troops,  he  hurled 
them  against  Cornwallis  at  Camden.  The  raw  militia  on  the 
American  left  wing  fled  without  firing  a  gun.  On  the  right 
wing,  the  Continental  troops  fought  with  desperate  valor. 
Eight  hundred  of  their  number  were  left  dead  and  dying  on 
the  field,  including  their  brave  leader,  de  Kalb.  The  American 
army  was  routed  and  practically  destroyed.  Gates  left  the  field 
with  the  militia  and  rode  the  two  hundred  miles  to  Hillsborough, 
North  Carolina,  in  less  than  four  days.  Once  more  the  South 
was  without  an  army,  and  the  way  seemed  clear  for  the  invasion 
of  Virginia,  the  bulwark  of  the  patriot  cause. 

King's  Mountain  and  the  Cowpens.  Before  this  year  of 
disasters  had  ended,  the  tide  of  British  victory  was  stemmed  at 
King's  Mountain,  on  the  border  between  North  and  South 
Carolina.  Here  the  backwoodsmen  from  beyond  the  Alleghenies 
surrounded  and  captured  a  thousand  Loyalists  under  the 
command  of  Major  Ferguson.  About  three  months  later,  the 
British  suffered  another  serious  defeat  at  the  Cowpens,  in  South 
Carolina.  In  this  battle,  General  Morgan,  who  had  fought  so 
well  at  Saratoga,  utterly  crushed  Tarleton,  the  best  cavalry 
officer  in  the  British  army.  Tarleton  himself  escaped  by  hard 
riding,  but  many  of  his  men  were  taken  prisoners.  These  two 
defeats  cost  Cornwallis  nearly  one  third  of  his  army. 

Greene's  Campaign  in  the  South.  Twice  a  patriot  army  had 
been  sent  to  the  South,  only  to  have  one  army  captured  at 
Charleston,  and  another  flung  away  at  Camden.  A  third  attempt 


200 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


was  now  made  to  rescue  the  South,  but  this  time  it  was  a  general 
instead  of  an  army  that  Washington  was  sending.  The  general 
was  Nathanael  Greene,  next  to  Washington  the  greatest  com- 
mander of  the  Revolution.    With  him  came  "  Light  Horse"  Harry 

Lee,  with  his  splendid  legion 
of  cavalry.  Von  Steuben, 
too,  was  sent  to  organize  the 
troops,  and  drill  them  as 
only  he  knew  how. 

Greene's  campaign  in  the 
South  is  the  singular  record 
of  a  general  who  seldom 
won  a  battle,  but  never  lost 
a  campaign.  It  is  the  story 
of  three  pitched  battles, 
of  skillful  maneuvers,  and 
masterly  retreats.  After  the 
battle  of  the  Cowpens, 
Greene  led  Cornwallis  an 
exciting  chase  across  North 
Carolina.  Cornwallis  burned 
his  heavy  baggage  in  order 
to  overtake  Greene,  but  in  vain.  Nature  seemed  to  be  fighting 
on  the  side  of  the  patriots.  One  river  after  another  rose  in 
flood  just  after  Greene  had  crossed,  delaying  the  British  pursuit. 
At  length,  after  his  long  retreat,  Greene  suddenly  turned  and 
offered  battle  at  Guilford  Court  House.  The  British  claimed 
the  victory,  but  Cornwallis  found  that  he  had  been  lured  two 
hundred  miles  away  from  his  base  of  supplies.  The  British 
commander  now  resolved  to  invade  Virginia,  and  unite  with  a 
large  force  of  Loyalists  under  Benedict  Arnold.  Greene  followed 
Cornwallis  to  the  Cape  Fear  River,  then  suddenly  faced  about 
and  captured  Camden.  By  the  close  of  1781,  his  superb  strategy 
had  wrested  from  the  British  every  post  south  of  Virginia  except 
Charleston  and  Savannah. 

Cornwallis  and  Lafayette.     When  Cornwallis  reached  Peters- 
burg, he  found  that  Lafayette's  little  army  was  at  Richmond, 


Nathanael  Greene 


THE   CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      201 

only  a  few  miles  away.  "  The  boy  cannot  escape  me/'  boasted 
Cornwallis ;  but  he  soon  learned  that  he  was  mistaken.  From 
Richmond  to  Fredericksburg,  Cornwallis  pursued  Lafayette, 
who  proved  as  skillful  in  retreat  as  Greene  himself.  When 
Lafayette  was  afterwards  reinforced  by  Wayne  and  Von  Steuben, 
Cornwallis  retreated  to  the  coast.  In  order  to  keep  in  touch  with 
the  British  fleet,  he  occupied  Yorktown  on  the  narrow  peninsula 
between  the  York  and  James  rivers. 

Cornwallis  Surrenders  at  Yorktown,  October  19,  1781.  Wash- 
ington had  been  planning  for  some  time  to  attack  New  York  with 
the  aid  of  the  French  troops  commanded  by  Count  Rochambeau. 
The  news  from  Virginia  changed  his  plans ;  he  determined  to 
march  his  army  four  hundred  miles  southward  and  crush  Corn- 


The  Moore  House,  Yorktown 

Built  in  1713.     Here  Washington  and  his  staff  drew  up  the  terms  of 
surrender  for  Cornwallis. 

wallis.  He  learned  that  he  could  count  on  the  aid  of  a  powerful 
French  fleet  under 'Admiral  de  Grasse,  which  had  already  started 
for  Chesapeake  Bay.  With  the  French  fleet  barring  the  Chesa- 
peake, a  strong  land  force  thrown  across  the  narrow  peninsula 


202 


THE    CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      203 

of  Yorktown  would  have  Cornwallis  in  a  trap.  With  4000 
French  soldiers  and  2000  of  his  own  Continentals,  Washington 
marched  rapidly  toward  the  South.  On  reaching  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  his  troops  were  transported  by  water  to 
Williamsburg.  Here  Washington  joined  forces  with  Lafayette, 
and  the  siege  of  Yorktown  began.  De  Grasse  had  already  beaten 
off  the  British  fleet,  so  that  Cornwallis  could  not  retreat  by  sea. 
On  the  land  side  his  situation  was  equally  hopeless,  for  his  army 
of  8000  men  was  hemmed  in  by  16,000  American  and  French 
soldiers.  The  bitter  end  was  at  hand  ;  and  on  October  19,  1781, 
Cornwallis  surrendered  his  entire  army. 

How  the  News  Was  Received.  Washington's  courier  reached 
Philadelphia  early  in  the  morning  of  October  24  with  the  glad 
tidings.  "  Past  three  o'clock,  and  Cornwallis  is  taken  !  "  shouted 
the  night  watch.  The  streets  were  soon  thronged  with  happy 
men  and  women  rejoicing  over  the  great  victory.  Congress 
went  in  a  body  to  church  for  a  special  service  of  prayer  and 
thanksgiving.  One  month  later  the  news  reached  England. 
"It  is  all  over !  It  is  all  over !  "  cried  Lord  North,  throwing 
up  his  hands  in  despair.  George  III  threatened  to  give  up  his 
throne  rather  than  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  the  stubborn  king  was  beaten  even  if  he  did  not  know 
it.  The  British  people  had  tired  of  the  war.  Public  sentiment 
compelled  Lord  North  to  resign  his  post  as  prime  minister,  and 
control  of  the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Whig 
party,  which  was  friendly  to  the  Americans.  The  system  of  per- 
sonal rule,  which  King  George  had  labored  so  long  to  build  up, 
was  overthrown  for  all  time.  The  crowning  victory  of  Yorktown 
meant  liberty  for  Great  Britain  as  well  as  independence  for 
America.  From  that  day  to  this,  no  British  monarch  has  dared 
to  keep  in  office  ministers  who  do  not  possess  the  confidence  of 
the  people. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace,  September  3,  1783.  The  war  ended 
with  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  but  two  years  elapsed  before 
the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed.  During  these  anxious  months, 
Franklin,  Adams,  and  Jay  were  in  Paris,  arranging  the  terms  of 
peace  with  Great  Britain's  representatives.  Now  that  independ- 


204 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION 


ence  had  been  fairly  won,  the  British  government  was  inclined 
to  deal  generously  with  the  new  nation.  The  chief  provisions  of 
the  treaty  were  as  follows : 

(1)  Great  Britain  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States. 

(2)  The  territory  of  the  new  nation  was  to  extend  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  St.  Croix  River  on  the  east  to  the  Missis- 
sippi River  on  the  west, 
and  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes 
on  the  north  to  Florida  on 
the  south.  Thus  the  United 
States  secured  not  only  the 
territory  of  the  original  thir- 
teen colonies,  but  all  of  the 
great  western  domain  be- 
tween the  Alleghenies  and 
the  Mississippi. 

(3)  Citizens  of  the  United 
States  were  to  have  the 
right  to  fish  off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland  and  Nova 
Scotia.  This  concession 
was  of  especial  value  to  New 
England's  fishing  industry. 

(4)  Both  nations  were  to 
have  the  right  to  navigate 
the  Mississippi  River,  which 

Spain  had  opened  to  Great  Britain  in  1763. 

(5)  Congress  agreed  to  recommend  to  the  state  legislatures 
the  repeal  of  their  laws  confiscating  the  property  of  the  Loyalists. 

By  a  separate  treaty  with  Spain,  Great  Britain  gave  back 
Florida,  which  she  had  won  in  1763.  France  gained  little  by  the 
terms  of  peace ;  she  had  made  war  not  for  conquest,  but  to 
aid  the  cause  of  liberty.  The  British  government  once  offered 
to  restore  Canada  to  France  if  she  would  consent  to  a  separate 
peace ;  but  that  nation  stood  loyally  by  the  terms  of  her  treaty 


William  Pitt  (the  Younger),  who  Suc- 
ceeded Lord  North  as  Prime  Minister 

From  an  engraving  by  Holt  in  the 
Emmett  Collection,  The  New  York  Public 
Library,  after  the  original  painting  by 
W.  Owen. 


THE    CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      205 

of  alliance  with  the  United  States.  France  had  fought  for  an 
idea  —  that  of  American  liberty  ;  she  wished  for  no  other  reward 
except  to  see  that  idea  prevail. 

The  British  Evacuate  New  York  —  Washington's  Farewell. 
The  British  forces  in  New  York  embarked  for  England  on 
November  25,  1783,  and  Washington  marched  in  at  the  head  of 


Fraunces'  Tavern,  Broad  and  Pearl  Streets,  New  York 

Built  in  1700  ;  bought  by  Samuel  Fraunces,  1762,  and  made  the  most  popular 
tavern  in  the  city.  A  daughter  of  the  proprietor  frustrated  a  plot  to  poison 
Washington.  Here  Washington  took  leave  of  his  officers  at  the  farewell  dinner, 
December  4,  1783. 


his  army.  A  few  days  later,  his  officers  assembled  to  bid  him  a 
final  farewell.  Washington  addressed  them  in  a  voice  trembling 
with  emotion :  "  With  a  heart  full  of  love  and  gratitude, 
I  now  take  my  leave  of  you.  I  most  devoutly  wish  that  your 
latter  days  may  be  as  prosperous  and  happy  as  your  former  ones 
have  been  glorious  and  honorable.  I  cannot  come  to  each  of 
you  and  take  my  leave,  but  shall  be  obliged  if  you  will  come 


206 


THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


and  take  me  by  the  hand."  One  by  one  they  came  forward, 
and  Washington  clasped  each  hand  in  a  silent,  affectionate 
farewell.  All  the  company  then  escorted  him  to  Whitehall 
Ferry,  where  he  entered  his  barge.  As  the  boat  was  rowed  from 
shore,  Washington  rose  and  lifted  his  hat  in  a  farewell  salute. 

The  Revolution  was  ended.  Its  triumphant  close  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  heroic  leadership  of  the  noble  figure  now  standing 
with  bared  head  in  the  boat  that  was  bearing  him  southward  to 
peaceful  Mount  Vernon.   Little  did  Washington  realize  that  his 


From  the  original  by  Trumbull  in  the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 

Washington  Resigning  His  Commission 


eight  years  of  military  service  were  soon  to  be  followed  by 
another  eight  years  of  splendid  leadership  as  our  first  President. 
At  Annapolis  he  paused  to  appear  before  Congress  and  resign 
his  commission.  He  refused  to  accept  any  pay  for  his  services, 
asking  only  that  his  own  expenses  and  the  money  he  had 
advanced  to  pay  and  feed  the  troops  be  returned  when  con- 
venient. All  through  the  war,  Washington's  one  great  longing 
had  been  to  sit  once  more  at  his  fireside,  on  the  banks  of  the 
peaceful  Potomac.  From  Annapolis  he  hastened  to  Virginia, 
arriving  at  Mount  Vernon  in  time  to  enjoy  the  Christmas 
festivities  at  his  home. 


THE    CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION      207 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  IX. 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  III,  chs.  VII- XII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Toldby  Contemporaries,  II,  chs.  XXVI- 
XXXV. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution,  chs.  XVI- XVIII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Declaration  of  Causes  and  Necessity  of  Taking  Up  Arms, 
pp.  176-183  ;  Declaration  of  Independence,  pp.  190-194  ;  Treaty 
of  Paris,  pp.  204-209. 

McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Confederation  and  the  Constitution  (American 
Nation  Series),  ch.  II. 

Van  Tyne,  C.  H.,  The  American  Revolution  (American  Nation  Series). 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  Foreign  Affairs  During  the  Revolution.  Foster,  John  W., 
Century  of  American  Diplomacy,  ch.  I. 

2.  Campaigns  of  the  Revolution.  Sloane,  W.  M.,  The  French 
War  and  the  Revolution,  chs.  XV-XXX. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  ch.  I. 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  III,  pp.  132-141. 

Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest,  chs.  II-IV. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the   Union  (Epochs  of  American  History), 

ch.  IV. 
Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  40-105. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Benjamin  Franklin.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Colonists  and  the 
Revolution,  pp.  31-46,  201-208  ;  Morse,  P.  E.,  Benjamin  Franklin 
(Riverside  Biographical  Series)  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the 
Nation,  ch.  I. 

2.  George  Rogers  Clarke.  Baldwin,  James,  Conquest  of  the 
Old  Northwest,  pp.  145-178  ;  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Westward  Move- 
ment (Century  Readings),  pp.  61-68  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  States,  pp.  116-121  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  His- 
tory, III,  pp.  188-195. 


Washington  Taking  the  Oath  of  Office  at  Old  Federal  Hall,  New  York 

.From  an  engraving  in  the  Emmett  Collection,   the  New  York  Public 
Library,  after  the  original  painting  by  Alonzo  Chappel. 


208 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE   CRITICAL  PERIOD   UNDER  THE  CONFEDERATION 

Government  by  the  Continental  Congress.  When  the 
thirteen  colonies  declared  their  independence  of  Great  Britain, 
they  did  not  at  once  form  a  national  government.  Throughout 
most  of  the  Revolution,  the  only  bond  of  union  between  the 
struggling  colonies  was  the  Second  Continental  Congress.  This 
was  a  revolutionary  body.  Necessity  called  it  into  existence, 
and  its  only  claim  to  authority  was  the  common  consent  of  the 
people.  Each  colony  sent  delegates  to  this  Congress,  which 
exercised  many  of  the  powers  of  a  national  government.  It 
raised  an  army  and  a  navy,  borrowed  money,  established  a 
treasury  department  and  post  office,  adopted  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France. 
Victory  crowned  its  work ;  and  with  independence  won,  the 
thirteen  states  were  face  to  face  with  the  difficult  problem  of 
uniting  under  some  form  of  national  government. 

Early  State  Governments.  The  governments  in  each  of  the 
original  thirteen  states  are  therefore  older  than  our  national 
government,  for  these  state  governments  came  into  existence 
when  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted.  Four 
states  adopted  their  constitutions  even  before  independence  was 
declared  by  the  Continental  Congress  ;  and  within  a  few  years, 
all  of  the  others  followed  their  example.  The  new  state  govern- 
ments were  modeled  on  the  colonial  governments,  with  some 
changes  to  meet  the  conditions  created  by  the  Revolution.  The 
state  constitution  took  the  place  of  the  colonial  charter,  and 
the  powers  formerly  exercised  by  the  king  were  vested  in  the 
legislature,  or  reserved  to  the  people  themselves.  The  remark- 
able thing  about  these  early  constitutions  is  that,  for  the  first 

209 


North  America  at  the  Close  of  the  Revolution 
210 


CRITICAL   PERIOD   UNDER   THE   CONFEDERATION      211 

time  in  history,  the  people  adopted  a  written  constitution  of 
higher  authority  than  the  government  itself.  The  constitution 
defined  the  powers  of  the  legislature,  the  governor,  and  the 
courts.  No  branch  of  the  government  could  exceed  the  powers 
granted,  or  change  the  written  constitution,  this  power  being 
reserved  to  the  people. 

The  early  state  constitution  generally  consisted  of  two  parts. 
First,  most  of  them  had  a  bill  of  rights,  setting  forth  the  civil 
and  political  rights  of  the  individual.  For  example,  the  bill  of 
rights  forbade  the  searching  of  private  dwellings  without  a 
proper  warrant ;  secured  the  right  of  trial  by  jury ;  asserted  the 
right  of  free  speech  and  a  free  press,  of  freedom  to  worship 
according  to  one's  own  conscience,  and  the  right  of  the  people 
peaceably  to  assemble  and  petition  the  government  for  redress 
of  grievances.  These  rights  had  been  secured  by  Englishmen  in 
the  mother  country  after  long  centuries  of  struggle.  The  English- 
men who  came  to  America  claimed  these  same  rights  as  their 
inheritance,  and  now  made  them  the  corner  stone  of  their  new 
government.  The  second  part  of  the  state  constitution  was  an 
outline  of  the  general  framework  of  government,  providing  for 
executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  departments,  and  usually 
stating  the  qualifications  necessary  to  enable  a  man  to  vote. 

Adopting  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  An  effort  was  made 
early  in  the  Revolution  to  unite  the  thirteen  new  states  in  a 
confederation  or  union.  On  the  very  day  that  Congress  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  write  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
a  second  committee  was  chosen  to  draw  up  a  plan  of  confedera- 
tion. Congress  adopted  the  proposed  Articles  of  Confederation, 
and  sent  them  to  the  states  for  their  approval.  The  states  were 
slow  to  act.  The  people  were  satisfied  with  their  state  govern- 
ments, and  they  feared  that  the  new  confederation  might  prove— 
fatal  to  their  liberties.  After  two  years  of  delay,  all  of  the  states 
agreed  to  the  Articles  of  Confederation  except  Maryland.  She 
refused  to  ratify  unless  the  states  which  claimed  lands  west  of 
the  Alleghenies  should  cede  these  lands  to  the  general  govern- 
ment, to  be  held  as  a  national  domain.  New  York  took  the  lead 
in  surrendering  her  claims,  and  Virginia  promised  similar  action. 


212  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

Maryland  then  ratified  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  which 
went  into  effect  March  1,  1781. 

Weakness  of  the  Confederation  Government.  The  new 
government  was  not  a  national  government  such  as  we  have 
to-day,  with  power  to  enforce  its  laws  and  to  tax  the  people 
for  its  support.  The  states  were  too  jealous  of  their  own  rights 
to  create  a  strong  national  government ;  so  they  formed  a  league 
or  confederation,  in  which  the  smallest  states  had  as  much  power 
as  the  largest.  Instead  of  three  departments  of  government, 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial,  the  powers  of  this  confedera- 
tion were  exercised  by  a  Congress  of  one  house.  In  this  body 
each  state,  large  or  small,  had  an  equal  vote. 

Since  there  was  no  national  executive,  Congress  had  to  depend 
upon  the  states  to  enforce  its  laws.  For  example,  Congress 
could  not  levy  taxes  upon  the  individual  citizen  and  compel  him 
to  pay  them,  as  our  national  government  does  to-day.  It  could 
only  ask  the  states  to  contribute  their  share  toward  the  common 
expenses ;  and  since  many  of  them  failed  to  pay,  the  new 
government  soon  became  bankrupt.  Nor  could  Congress  raise 
soldiers  by  calling  for  volunteers  and  by  compelling  men  to 
serve,  as  our  national  government  did  in  the  Civil  War  and  in 
the  World  War.  It  could  only  request  the  states  for  troops, 
and  was  helpless  if  the  states  did  not  choose  to  supply  them. 
Congress  could  make  treaties,  but  it  could  not  compel  the 
states  to  observe  them.  In  short,  as  one  writer  has  said,  Congress 
could  declare  everything  but  do  nothing. 

Creation  of  a  Public  Domain.  The  Congress  of  the  Con- 
federation adopted  one  very  important  measure,  the  Ordinance 
of  1787.  Early  in  the  Revolution,  George  Rogers  Clark  and  his 
brave  Virginians  wrested  from  British  control  the  vast  domain 
bounded  by  the  Ohio  River,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi. This  was  the  Northwest  Territory,  surrendered  by  Great 
Britain  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  occupied  by  a  few  hardy 
pioneers  who  had  pushed  westward  through  the  passes  of  the 
Alleghenies.  The  ownership  of  this  territory  was  a  matter  of 
serious  dispute  when  the  Revolution  ended.  Virginia,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Connecticut  set  up  conflicting  claims,  founded  on  the 


CRITICAL   PERIOD   UNDER   THE    CONFEDERATION      213 


The  Westward  Movement 

Showing  the  frontier  line  in  1790  and  in  1800. 

grants  made  in  their  colonial  charters ;  while  New  York  claimed 
all  the  territory  formerly  occupied  by  the  Iroquois  Indians  and 
their  subject  tribes. 

That  part  of  the  West  lying  south  of  the  Ohio  River  was 
likewise  claimed  by  four  of  the  colonies  —  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 
and  Georgia.  On  the  other  hand,  states  like  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  and  Maryland  had  such  definite  boundaries  that  they 
could  not  claim  any  part  of  either  the  Northwest  or  the  South- 
west ;  and  they  looked  with  envy  and  distrust  upon  their  land- 
claiming  neighbors.  Maryland  refused  to  join  the  Confederation 
unless  these  claims  were  given  up.  This  was  finally  done,  the 
states  ceding  their  claims  to  Congress,  and  so  the  western  lands 
became  the  common  property  of  the  United  States.  Each  state 
was  an  equal  partner  in  the  public  domain,  and  this  fact  helped 
to  hold  the  states  together  during  the  critical  years  from  1783  to 
1787. 

Land  Surveys  in  the  Northwest.  By  selling  tracts  of  these 
western  lands  to  settlers,  Congress  hoped  to  pay  off  part  of 
the  Revolutionary  debt,  and  at  the  same  time  aid  in  building 


214 


THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 


up  the  West.  At  first  the  public  lands  were  sold  only  in  large 
tracts,  not  less  than  six  hundred  and  forty  acres ;  but  this  policy 
was  soon  changed  so  that  a  man  could  purchase  one  hundred 
and  sixty  acres  for  two  dollars  an  acre,  and  pay  for  it  in  four 
installments.  Congress  also  adopted  a  simple  and  accurate 
method  of  survey,  by  which  the  entire  territory  was  divided 
into  squares  called  townships,  measuring  six  miles  on  a  side. 
Each  township   was  then  subdivided  into  thirty-six  smaller 


3 


General  Rufus  Putnam's  House  at  Marietta 

Most  of  the  early  settlers  in  Marietta  (named  for  the  Queen  of  France)  were 
former  Revolutionary  War  officers.  They  built  a  stockade  about  the  settle- 
ment and  the  Campus  Martius,  with  a  strong  fort  at  each  corner.  In  1825, 
Lafayette  visited  the  cemetery  in  Marietta,  where  several  of  his  fellow-officers 
were  buried. 

squares,  called  sections,  each  one  mile  square.  Every  township 
and  section  was  numbered,  so  that  any  tract  of  land  could  be 
easily  located.  Congress  reserved  the  sixteenth  section  in  each 
township,  and  gave  it  to  the  states  for  the  support  of  their 
public  schools,  besides  two  whole  townships  in  each  state  for 
the  endowment  of  a  state  university. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787.  How  should  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory be  governed  ?  Congress  answered  this  question  by  passing 
the  Ordinance  of  1787.  This  ordinance  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant laws  in  our  history.   It  outlined  clearly  the  policy  ever 


CRITICAL   PERIOD   UNDER   THE    CONFEDERATION      215 

since  followed  by  the  national  government  in  dealing  with  its 
territories.  "  I  doubt,"  said  Daniel  Webster,  "  whether  one 
single  law  of  any  lawgiver,  ancient  or  modern,  has  produced 
effects  of  more  distinct,  marked,  and  lasting  character  than  the 
Ordinance  of  1787."  The  ordinance  provided  that  for  the  first 
few  years,  the  Northwest  Territory  should  have  a  temporary 
government,  the  laws  to  be  made  by  the  governor  and  three 
judges  appointed  by  Congress.  As  the  population  increased,  this 
temporary  government  was  to  be  replaced  by  a  representative 
government,  the  people  choosing  the  lower  house  of  the  legisla- 
ture. Not  more  than  five  nor  fewer  than  three  states  were  to  be 
formed  from  this  region  ;  and  statehood  was  promised  as  soon  as 
any  district  had  sixty  thousand  inhabitants.  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  a  part  of  Minnesota  were 
the  states  afterwards  formed  from  the  Northwest  Territory. 

Three  other  provisions  of  the  ordinance  were  of  especial 
importance :  — 

(1)  It  forever  prohibited  slavery  in  the  Northwest  Territory. 

(2)  It  guaranteed  religious  freedom  to  all  settlers. 

(3)  The  ordinance  declared  that  "  religion,  morality,  and 
knowledge  being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the  hap- 
piness of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall 
forever  be  encouraged." 

The  Beginnings  of  Ohio.  A  number  of  New  Englanders, 
including  several  Revolutionary  officers,  had  already  planned  to 
establish  a  colony  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  In  1787,  this  Ohio 
Company  purchased  from  Congress  nearly  one  million  acres  of 
land.  In  the  following  spring,  General  Rufus  Putnam  with  a 
little  band  of  fifty  colonists  reached  the  spot  where  the  Mus- 
kingum River  flows  into  the  Ohio.  Here  they  founded  the  town 
of  Marietta;  and  a  few  months  later  another  settlement  was 
made  farther  down  the  river,  at  Cincinnati.  General  Arthur  St. 
Clair,  chosen  by  Congress  as  the  first  governor  of  the  Northwest 
Territory,  soon  arrived  at  Marietta ;  and  with  his  coming,  the 
civil  government  provided  for  in  the  Ordinance  of  1787  went  into 
effect.  Emigration  to  the  West  now  became  very  popular. 
Eastern  farmers  hastened  to  sell  their  homesteads  for  what  they 


216 


THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 


would  bring,  in  order  to  begin  life  anew  in  the  Northwest.  Each 
spring  hundreds  of  flatboats  loaded  with  cattle  and  household 
goods  floated  down  the  Ohio. 

The  Southwestern  Frontier.  South  of  the  Ohio  River,  in 
what  is  now  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  the  frontier  settlements 
were  growing  even  more  rapidly.  Kentucky  was  opened  up  to  the 

world  by  the  brave  Daniel 
Boone  and  his  followers, 
who  settled  at  Boones- 
borough  on  the  Kentucky 
River ;  while  James  Harrod 
and  a  band  of  Virginians 
founded  the  town  of  Har- 
rodsburg.  This  district  was 
soon  filled  with  hardy  pio- 
neers. Louisville,  first  estab- 
lished as  a  trading  post,  be- 
came a  thriving  village. 
The  settlers  were  within  the 
bounds  of  Virginia,  but 
within  a  few  years  this  terri- 
tory was  to  become  the  new 
state  of  Kentucky  (1792). 
Pioneers  from  North  Caro- 
lina also  crossed  the  moun- 
tains before  the  Revolution, 
and  settled  in  what  is  now  Tennessee.  These  bold  frontiers- 
men, led  by  John  Sevier,  the  "  lion  of  the  border,"  helped  win 
the  fight  with  the  British  troops  at  King's  Mountain.  North 
Carolina  at  first  claimed  this  territory,  but  it  was  admitted  as 
the  state  of  Tennessee  in  1796. 

The  Critical  Period  of  American  History.  The  difficulties 
that  beset  the  Confederation  were  constantly  increasing. 
Even  under  the  stress  of  war  and  the  pressure  of  com- 
mon dangers,  the  Confederation  government  was  feeble  and 
inefficient ;  with  the  return  of  peace  it  seemed  on  the  verge  of 
collapse.    One  historian  asserts  that  "  the  period  of  five  years 


Daniel  Boone 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Chester 
Harding  in  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society. 


CRITICAL   PERIOD   UNDER   THE   CONFEDERATION      217 

following  the  peace  of  1783  was  the  most  critical  moment  in  all 
the  history  of  the  American  people."  The  chief  difficulty  of 
the  Confederation  was  its  lack  of  power  to  raise  money  even 
for  the  ordinary  expenses  of  government.  Revenue  could  be 
secured  only  through  contributions  from  the  states ;  but  during 
the  years  1780-1783,  requests  for  $10,000,000  yielded  less  than 
$1,500,000.  As  a  result,  Congress  could  not  pay  the  foreign 
debt  as  it  came  due,  or  even  the  soldiers  of  the  Continental  Army, 
save  in  certificates  of  indebtedness. 

The  lack  of  power  to  control  commerce  was  another  fatal 
weakness  of  the  Confederation.  Commerce  with  foreign  nations 
and  among  the  several  states  was  controlled  by  the  individual 
states,  each  of  which  tried  to  promote  its  own  trade  at  the 
expense  of  its  neighbors.  For  example,  Connecticut  taxed 
imports  from  Massachusetts,  while  admitting  British  goods 
free  of  duty.  New  York  levied  charges  on  all  vessels  coming 
from  or  bound  to  New  Jersey  or  Connecticut.  New  Jersey  tried 
to  retaliate  by  levying  a  tax  of  $150  a  month  on  a  few  acres  of 
land  that  New  York  had  bought  at  Sandy  Hook. 

Within  the  states  there  was  disorder,  and  sometimes  rebellion. 
The  country  was  impoverished  as  a  result  of  the  war,  while 
commerce  and  industry  could  not  revive  without  a  stable  govern- 
ment. Seven  states  were  issuing  large  quantities  of  paper  money, 
and  trying  to  compel  creditors  to  accept  it  in  payment  of  debts. 
In  Massachusetts  more  than  a  thousand  persons  who  owed 
money  took  up  arms  to  prevent  the  holding  of  courts  and  the 
collection  of  debts  (Shays's  Rebellion,  1786-1787).  Congress 
was  powerless  to  suppress  this  disorder ;  indeed  Congress  itself 
was  at  one  time  driven  out  of  Philadelphia  by  some  eighty 
drunken  soldiers,  clamoring  for  their  pay.  Everywhere  state  was 
arrayed  against  state,  section  against  section ;  New  England 
against  the  South  over  the  question  of  trade  with  Great  Britain, 
the  East  against  the  West  on  the  subject  of  commerce  with 
Spain  and  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi. 

What  Foreign  Countries  Thought  of  Us.  Foreign  countries 
treated  the  new  nation  with  contempt.  Great  Britain  declined 
to  make  a  commercial  treaty  with  a  government  powerless  to 


-b' 


218  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

compel  its  thirteen  states  to  observe  the  agreement.  Nor  would 
Great  Britain  consent  to  withdraw  her  troops  from  some  twenty 
posts  on  our  northwest  border,  as  agreed  upon  by  the  peace 
treaty  of  1783.  Her  reason  was  that  we  had  not  done  two 
things  that  we  agreed  to  do  by  this  same  treaty :  first,  to 
compensate  the  Loyalists  for  the  loss  of  their  property; 
and  second,  to  compel  the  payment  of  debts  owed  to  British 
merchants  before  the  war.  Congress  was  anxious  for  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Spain,  but  that  country  would  make  no 
treaty  unless  we  paid  duties  to  the  Spanish  colony  of  Louisiana, 
through  which  the  Mississippi  flowed  for  the  last  hundred  miles 
of  its  course.  Even  the  pirate  state  of  Tripoli  could  defy  us  with 
impunity,  and  hold  American  sailors  in  captivity  for  a  ransom 
that  Congress  could  not  pay. 

The  Confederation  Proves  a  Rope  of  Sand.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  so  as  to  confer 
upon  Congress  the  power  to  levy  duties  upon  imported  goods 
and  to  regulate  commerce.  Each  time  the  amendment  was 
defeated  by  the  selfish  opposition  of  a  single  state;  for  the 
consent  of  all  the  states  was  necessary  in  order  to  amend  the 
Articles.  It  was  apparent  by  1785  that  the  Confederation  was 
on  the  verge  of  collapse.  Congress  had  declined  both  in  numbers 
and  character.  The  ablest  men  would  no  longer  consent  to  serve 
as  delegates,  and  it  was  almost  impossible  to  secure  a  quorum 
for  the  transaction  of  business.  "  There  is  in  America  no  general 
government,"  reported  the  agent  of  France  ;  and  the  statement 
was  almost  literally  true.  The  Confederation  government  could 
command  neither  respect  abroad  nor  obedience  at  home.  By 
1786  its  breakdown  was  complete.  Plainly,  the  Union  must  be 
strengthened,  or  give  way  to  a  condition  of  anarchy  and  civil  war. 

Conferences  to  Discuss  Trade  and  Navigation.  The  disputes 
over  commerce  proved  a  blessing  in  disguise ;  for  from  them 
sprang  a  series  of  meetings  which  finally  led  to  the  Constitutional 
Convention.  The  first  of  these  meetings  to  discuss  commercial 
relations  was  held  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  in  1785,  Maryland 
and  Virginia  being  represented.  The  delegates  saw  that  the 
consent  of  other  states  would  be  necessary  to  any  regulations 


CRITICAL   PERIOD   UNDER   THE    CONFEDERATION      219 

which  they  might  adopt.  So  Virginia  proposed  a  meeting  of 
delegates  from  all  the  states,  to  be  held  at  Annapolis  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Only  five  states  sent  delegates ;  it  was  plain  that 
nothing  could  be  accomplished  unless  more  states  took  part. 
The  convention  adopted  a  report  recommending  that  delegates 
from  all  the  states  should  meet  at  Philadelphia  to  consider  the 
situation  of  the  country  and  plan  the  measures  necessary  to 
make  the  Constitution  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  Union. 

The  Proposed  Constitutional  Convention.  Many  of  the 
states,  and  Congress  as  well,  hesitated  to  endorse  this  proposal. 
Some  of  Washington's  friends  urged  him  not  to  become  a  dele- 
gate, for  they  feared  that  the  proposed  convention  would  prove 
a  failure.  But  Washington,  as  well  as  Hamilton,  Madison,  and 
other  leaders,  realized  that  the  country  was  on  the  verge  of 
anarchy.  "  Illiberality,  jealousy,  and  local  policy,"  said  Wash- 
ington, "mix  too  much  in  all  our  public  councils  for  the  good 
government  of  the  Union.  In  a  word,  the  Confederation  appears 
to  me  to  be  little  more  than  a  shadow  without  the  substance." 
It  was  plain  that  a  stronger  government  must  be  formed  if  the 
liberties  won  by  the  Revolution  were  to  endure.  After  several 
states  had  appointed  delegates,  Congress  adopted  a  resolution 
calling  a  convention  on  the  second  Monday  of  May,  1787,  "  for 
the  sole  and  express  purpose  of  revising  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation." 

REFERENCES   FOR    TEACHERS 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  X. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  III,  chs.  XIII- XV, 

XVII. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch. 

XVIII. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  VI. 
Johnston,  A.,   Union  and  Democracy  (Riverside  History),  ch.  I. 
Macdonald,  W.,   Documentary  Source   Book  of  American    History: 

Articles  of  Confederation,  pp.  195-204  ;    Ordinance  of  1787,  pp. 

209-216. 
McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Confederation  and  the  Constitution,  chs.  Ill- XL 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  I,  chs. 

II-IV. 


220  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  The  Articles  of  Confederation.  Sloane,  W.  M.,  The  French 
War  and  the  Revolution,  chs.  XVIII- XIX  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The 
United  States,  I,  ch.  I. 

2.  The  Northwest  Territory.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and 
Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXIII  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  Terri- 
torial Growth  of  the  United  States,  ch.  II. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Articles  of  Confederation.  Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance 
of  Conquest,  ch.  VI  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship, 
pp.  152-154  ;   Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the   Union,  ch.  V. 

2.  Pioneer  Life  in  the  Ohio  Country.  Baldwin,  James,  Conquest 
of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  187-194  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the 
American  People,  chs.  XI- XIII. 

3.  The  Northwest  Territory.  Baldwin,  James,  Conquest  of  the 
Old  Northwest,  pp.  179-186  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American 
People,  chs.  Ill,  X. 

4.  Daniel  Boone.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Westward  Movement  (Cen- 
tury Readings),  pp.  75-80  ;  Bruce,  H.  A.,  Daniel  Boone  and  the 
Wilderness  Road ;  Bruce,  H.  A.,  Romance  of  American  Expansion, 
ch.  I. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
MAKING   THE   FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION 

The  Constitutional  Convention.  Independence  Hall  at 
Philadelphia  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  great  Constitutional 
Convention  which  assembled  on  May  25,  1787.  Its  mission  was 
to  devise  a  better  plan  of  government,  to  build  a  more  perfect 
Union.  How  well  the  Convention  accomplished  its  work  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  we  are  living  to-day  under  the  Constitution 
then  framed.  The  Constitution  is  so  elastic  that  it  could  be 
adapted  to  the  many  changes  in  our  national  life  since  the 
eighteenth  century ;  and  it  has  proven  strong  enough  to  carry 
the  Union  safely  through  foreign  invasion  and  Civil  War. 

All  the  states  except  Rhode  Island  sent  delegates  to  this 
notable  assembly ;  and  its  fifty-five  members  included  many  of 
the  ablest  leaders  and  statesmen  of  the  day.  The  oldest  delegate 
was  Pennsylvania's  philosopher  and  sage,  Benjamin  Franklin ; 
one  of  the  youngest  was  Alexander  Hamilton  of  New  York, 
whose  brilliant  career  was  destined  to  be  cut  off  at  its  noon. 
Virginia  sent  two  future  Presidents :  George  Washington,  the 
foremost  man  in  America,  and  James  Madison,  called  the 
"  Father  of  the  Constitution  "  because  he  drew  up  the  plan 
adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  Convention's  work.  Other  distin- 
guished members  were  Robert  Morris  and  James  Wilson  of 
Pennsylvania ;  John  Rutledge  and  the  Pinckneys  of  South 
Carolina  ;  Roger  Sherman  and  Oliver  Ellsworth  of  Connecticut ; 
John  Dickinson  of  Delaware  ;  Elbridge  Gerry  and  Rufus  King  of 
Massachusetts.  Two  well-known  Americans  could  not  be  chosen 
as  delegates  because  they  were  representing  our  country  abroad  : 
John  Adams  as  minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  Thomas  Jefferson 
as  minister  to  France. 

221 


222 


MAKING   THE    FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION  223 

Shall  a  Strong  National  Government  be  Formed?  The 
Convention  organized  on  May  25  by  electing  George  Washing- 
ton as  presiding  officer.  It  was  decided  to  sit  behind  closed  doors, 
so  as  to  keep  secret  the  debates  and  proceedings.  It  was  thought 
that  a  final  agreement  would  be  more  probable  if  the  discussions 
were  kept  from  the  public.  Each  state  was  to  have  one  vote,  as 
in  the  Confederation  Congress.  The  first  contest  arose  over  the 
question  whether  a  strong  national  government  should  be 
created.  This  was  the  purpose  of  the  Virginia  plan  drafted 
by  James  Madison,  which  provided  for  a  national  government 
of  three  departments,  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial.  It 
proposed  to  abandon  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  establish 
a  vigorous  and  efficient  national  government.  The  delegates 
from  the  smaller  states  opposed  the  national  idea.  They  offered 
the  New  Jersey  plan,  which  was  intended  only  to  revise 
the  Articles  of  Confederation.  Congress  was  to  be  given  more 
power  over  commerce  and  revenue,  but  the  states  were  to  be 
supreme  in  most  matters,  as  before.  Above  all,  the  New  Jersey 
plan  aimed  to  preserve  the  equality  of  the  states  by  giving  to 
each  a  single  vote  in  Congress. 

A  few  members  wished  to  adopt  half-way  measures,  thinking 
this  policy  would  please  the  people.  But  Washington  believed 
in  thorough  work,  here  as  elsewhere.  He  stated  his  position  in  a 
few  noble  words :  "  If,  to  please  the  people,  we  offer  what  we 
ourselves  disapprove,  how  can  we  afterwards  defend  our  work? 
Let  us  raise  a  standard  to  which  the  wise  and  the  honest  can 
repair ;  the  event  is  in  the  hand  of  God."  After  some  debate, 
the  attempt  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Confederation  was  given  up. 
The  Convention  decided  to  create  a  national  government, 
consisting  of  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  departments ; 
and  this  government  was  to  have  all  the  powers  necessary  to 
carry  on  its  work. 

The  Compromise  over  Representation.  It  was  readily  agreed 
that  the  national  legislature  or  Congress  should  consist  of  two 
houses,  like  the  British  Parliament ;  but  there  was  a  long 
debate  over  the  method  by  which  the  states  should  be  repre- 
sented in  this  body.  The  large  states  insisted  that  representation 


224  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

\  in  each  branch  of  Congress  should  be  proportioned  to  population. 
<^L  They  argued  that  it  would  be  unfair  for  the  forty  thousand 
citizens  of  Delaware  to  have  the  same  voice  in  Congress  as  the 
half  million  people  of  Virginia.  The  small  states  demanded  equal 
representation  in  both  houses,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  state. 
Neither  side  would  yield,  and  for  a  time  it  seemed  likely  that 
this  dispute  would  wreck  the  Convention.  Finally,  the  com- 
promise plan  suggested  by  Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut  was 
adopted.  In  the  lower  house  of  Congress  each  state  was  to  be 
represented  in  proportion  to  its  population,  while  in  the  upper 
house  or  Senate  the  states  were  to  be  equally  represented,  each 
having  two  Senators.  Assured  of  an  equal  vote  in  the  Senate, 
the  small  states  were  no  longer  opposed  to  a  strong  national 
government ;  and  from  this  point  on,  the  proceedings  were  more 
harmonious. 

Commerce  and  the  Slave  Trade.  Another  compromise  was 
necessary  to  reconcile  the  views  of  delegates  from  the  slave- 
holding  states  with  those  from  commercial  New  England.  The 
commercial  states  wished  to  give  the  national  government 
power  to  regulate  commerce ;  but  some  of  the  slaveholding 
states  feared  that  this  power,  if  granted,  might  be  used  to 
prohibit  the  slave  trade.  The  South  also  feared  that  Congress 
might  tax  exports,  thus  laying  a  heavy  burden  upon  its  agricul- 
tural staples.  It  was  finally  agreed  that  Congress  should  have 
power  to  regulate  commerce,  but  not  to  tax  exports.  The  slave 
trade  was  not  to  be  prohibited  before  the  year  1808,  but  a  tax 
of  ten  dollars  might  be  levied  on  each  slave  brought  into  the 
country. 

Many  other  compromises  and  adjustments  were  necessary  in 
order  to  reconcile  conflicting  views  among  the  delegates  ;  so  that 
the  Constitution  is  really  a  "  bundle  of  compromises."  Origi- 
nally it  had  been  agreed  that  the  President  should  be  chosen 
by  Congress  for  a  term  of  seven  years,  and  should  not  be  eligible 
for  a  second  term.  Fearing  that  this  plan  would  make  the 
executive  a  mere  agent  of  Congress,  the  Convention  finally 
decided  that  the  President  should  be  chosen  by  an  electoral 
college;  and  that  his  term  should  be  four  years,  with  no  re- 


MAKING   THE   FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION 


225 


striction  upon  the  number  of  terms  he  might  serve.  The  Con- 
stitution as  finally  drawn  up  was  based  largely  on  provisions 
borrowed  from  the  state  constitutions,  which  in  turn  were  the 
result  of  the  political  experience  of  the  colonists.  Most  of  its 
provisions  had  been  tested  in  actual  practice,  so  that  the  new 
Constitution  was  much  more  likely  to  succeed  than  if  it  had 
merely  represented  untried  theories  of  government. 


The  White  House,  Washington 

The  cornerstone  was  laid  October  13,  1792  ;  completed  in  1802  under  the  direc- 
tion of  James  Hoban,  who  supervised  the  building  of  the  Capitol ;  designed  after 
the  palace  of  the  Duke  of  Leinster  in  Dublin.  Cabinet  meetings  were  held  in 
the  east  side  of  "The  President's  House"  until  executive  offices  w<jre  built 
during  President  Roosevelt's  administration. 

How  Laws  Are  Made  The  Constitution  vests  all  legislative 
powers  in  Congress,  which  consists  of  two  houses.  The  first 
Congress  was  composed  of  twenty-two  Senators  and  fifty-nine 
Representatives.  At  the  present  time  the  Senate  consists  of 
ninety-six  members,  two  being  elected  by  the  voters  of  each 
state  ;  while  the  House  of  Representatives  now  has  four  hundred 
and  thirty-five  members,  each  state  being  represented  according 
to  its  population.  Any  member  of  either  house  of  Congress  may 
introduce  a  bill,  or  draft  of  a  proposed  law.  After  having  been 
considered  in  committee,  the  bill  may  be  debated  and  perhaps 


226  THE    NEW   REPUBLIC 

changed.  If  it  receives  the  votes  of  a  majority  of  the  members 
in  each  house,  it  is  sent  to  the  President.  His  signature  makes 
the  bill  a  law.  If  the  President  disapproves  the  measure,  he  sends 
it  back  to  Congress,  with  the  reasons  for  his  veto.  The  bill 
cannot  then  become  a  law  unless  passed  over  the  veto  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  in  each  house.  After  a  law  is  passed,  it  will  be 
enforced  by  the  President,  unless  the  Supreme  Court  declares 
it  to  be  unconstitutional,  that  is,  not  really  a  law  at  all. 

The  Office  of  President.  The  framers  of  the  Constitution 
wished  to  create  a  strong  executive,  with  power  to  enforce  the 
laws  and  to  carry  on  the  affairs  of  government.  They  decided 
on  a  President,  to  be  elected  for  four  years  by  electors  chosen  in 
each  state  for  that  purpose.  The  President  has  large  powers.  It 
is  his  duty  to  enforce  the  laws ;  and  as  commander  in  chief, 
he  may  use  the  whole  power  of  the  army  and  navy  for  that 
purpose,  if  necessary.  The  President  is  responsible  for  carrying 
on  the  business  of  government.  To  aid  him  in  this  work,  he 
appoints  a  number  of  executive  officers,  who  form  his  Cabinet. 
The  first  Cabinet  appointed  by  President  Washington  included 
only  four  members ;  but  other  departments  have  since  been 
established  to  meet  the  growing  needs  of  the  country,  until 
to-day  the  President's  Cabinet  includes  ten  members. 

With  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  the  President  also  appoints 
ambassadors,  consuls,  postmasters  in  the  large  cities,  federal 
judges,  and  many  other  executive  officials.  The  President 
makes  treaties  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate;  he 
sends  messages  to  Congress  recommending  desirable  legislation  ; 
he  has  power  to  veto  any  law  passed  by  Congress,  and  may 
pardon  offenses  against  the  United  States. 

The  National  Courts.  A  judicial  department  or  system  of 
national  courts  was  the  most  original  feature  of  the  new  Consti- 
tution. This  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
together  with  such  lower  courts  as  Congress  sees  fit  to  establish. 
The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  President,  and  serve  during 
good  behavior.  The  national  courts  try  cases  between  states, 
between  citizens  of  different  states,  between  foreigners  and 
citizens,  and  all  offenses  against  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 


MAKING   THE    FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION 


227 


They  also  decide  whether  laws  passed  by  Congress  or  by  the 
states  are  in  harmony  with  the  national  Constitution,  provided  a 
case  is  brought  before  the  court  in  which  some  one  claims  that 
the  law  is  unconstitutional. 

Amending  the  Constitution.     The  members  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  realized  that,  as  our  country  grew,  the  people 


m*«*m 


y         r 


Ft 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  Chief  Justice  Edward  D. 
White  of  Louisiana  (appointed  1910)  Presiding 

This  room  was  the  Senate  Chamber  before  1859,  the  scene  of  the  great  speeches 
by  Clay,  Calhoun,  and  Webster. 

would  probably  wish  to  make  changes  in  their  Constitution,  in 
order  to  adapt  it  to  new  conditions.  So  they  provided  methods 
of  making  changes,  or  amendments.  Eighteen  of  these  amend- 
ments have  been  made  since  the  Constitution  was  adopted. 
Each  amendment  was  first  proposed  by  Congress,  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  house  being  necessary,  and  afterwards  ratified  by 
the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  states. 

Federal  Plan  of  Government.     The  government  created  by 
our  national  Constitution  is  a  federal  government,  that  is,  a 


228  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

Union  made  up  of  states.  There  are  now  forty-eight  states,  each 
having  its  own  state  government  charged  with  important  duties ; 
while  all  of  the  states  are  united  to  form  a  national  government, 
which  exercises  powers  relating  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation  as 
a  whole.  The  states  are  as  essential  to  the  Union  as  the  fingers 
to  the  hand ;  and  the  Union  is  just  as  essential  to  the  states. 

The  Constitution  vests  in  the  national  government  powers 
that  are  national  in  character,  leaving  the  states  in  control  of 
all  other  matters.  Thus  the  national  government  has  charge 
of  foreign  relations,  including  the  right  to  make  treaties,  to  send 
and  receive  ambassadors,  to  declare  war,  and  to  make  peace. 
Control  of  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several 
states  is  another  important  power  belonging  to  the  national 
government.  Congress  also  has  power  to  coin  money,  to  estab- 
lish a  postal  system,  to  make  laws  on  the  subject  of  naturaliza- 
tion, to  control  territories  and  public  lands,  to  maintain  an  army 
and  navy,  to  grant  copyrights  and  patents,  to  borrow  money, 
and  to  levy  taxes.  The  Constitution  vests  these  powers  in 
Congress  because  they  affect  the  welfare  of  the  entire  country. 

To  the  states,  on  the  other  hand,  are  left  matters  of  more 

local  concern,  including  education,  local  government,  regulation 

of  contracts,  of  marriage  and  divorce,  commerce  wholly  within 

T  )        a  state,  most  laws  against  crime,  and  taxation  for  the  support  of 

1    \      state  and  local  governments. 

How  the  New  Government  Differed  from  the  Old.  How  did 
the  new  Constitution  differ  from  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
as  a  plan  of  government  ?   In  several  important  respects  : 

(1)  Under  the  new  Constitution,  the  national  government  no 
longer  had  to  depend  upon  the  states  to  carry  out  its  measures. 
It  enforced  its  own  laws,  through  its  own  officers.  The  new 
national  government  could  levy  taxes  directly  upon  the  indi- 
vidual citizen ;  it  could  coin  money,  raise  armies,  hold  its  own 
courts,  pay  its  own  officers.  The  Confederation  government 
could  do  none  of  these  things. 

(2)  Commerce  with  foreign  countries,  as  well  as  trade  between 
the  different  states,  was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  national 
government.     No  longer  could  each  state  levy  duties  on  imports 


MAKING   THE   FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION  229 

and  exports.     Duties  on  exports  were  forbidden,  and  only  Con- 
gress could  levy  duties  on  imports. 

(3)  Under  the  Confederation,  there  was  no  national  executive, 
no  system  of  national  courts.  Under  the  new  Constitution, 
there  were  three  departments  of  government ;  a  Congress  of  two 
houses  to  make  the  laws ;  an  executive  to  enforce  them ;  and  a 
system  of  national  courts  to  interpret  and  apply  the  laws. 

(4)  The  Constitution  created  a  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  and  gave  it  authority  to  decide  any  question  concerning 
the  powers  of  the  national  government.  If  a  law  passed  by 
Congress  or  by  any  state  is  in  conflict  with  the  Constitution,  this 
court  may  set  it  aside ;  that  is,  declare  the  measure  void  and  of 
no  effect. 

Completion  of  the  Convention's  Work.  At  last,  after  four 
months  of  deliberation,  the  Convention  completed  its  task ;  and 
on  September  17,  1787,  the  new  Constitution  was  signed  by 
thirty-nine  delegates.  As  the  members  were  affixing  their 
signatures,  Franklin  pointed  toward  the  presiding  officer's  chair 
on  the  back  of  which  was  painted  a  half-sun.  He  remarked  to 
those  near  him  that  painters  found  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
in  their  art  between  a  rising  and  a  setting  sun.  "  I  have," 
he  declared,  "  often  and  often,  in  the  course  of  this  session  .  .  . 
looked  at  that  behind  the  president  without  being  able  to  tell 
whether  it  was  rising  or  setting.  But  now  I  have  the  happiness 
to  know  that  it  is  a  rising  and  not  a  setting  sun." 

The  Contest  over  Ratification.  The  new  Constitution  was  not 
to  become  effective  unless  ratified  by  at  least  nine  of  the  thirteen 
states.  As  soon  as  it  was  published,  the  contest  over  ratification 
began.  The  opponents  of  the  Constitution  declared  that  it  gave 
too  much  power  to  the  national  government  at  the  expense  of 
the  states,  and  that  its  adoption  would  sound  the  death  knell  of 
popular  liberty.  Some  of  the  foremost  patriots  of  the  Revolution  -  l\ 
opposed  the  new  plan  of  government.  In  Virginia  the  opposition 
was  led  by  Patrick  Henry,  supported  by  Richard  Henry  Lee, 
George  Mason,  and  James  Monroe.  In  New  York,  the  Constitu- 
tion was  bitterly  opposed  by  George  Clinton,  then  governor  of 
the  state. 


230  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

The  Federalists,  as  the  supporters  of  the  Constitution  styled 
themselves,  pointed  to  existing  conditions  as  an  unanswerable 
argument  in  favor  of  a  strong  government.  The  Federalists 
included  most  of  the  lawyers,  doctors,  and  ministers,  as  well  as 
the  large  property-owners  and  merchants,  who  welcomed  the 
prospect  of  a  strong  national  government.  In  Virginia  the 
prominent  supporters  of  the  Constitution  were  James  Madison 
and  Edmund  Randolph,  aided  by  John  Marshall,  later  the 
greatest  chief  justice  in  our  history ;  and  the  potent  influence 
of  Washington  was  also  exerted  in  its  behalf.  In  New  York  the 
foremost  Federalist  was  Alexander  Hamilton,  ably  seconded  by 
John  Jay. 

The  Delaware  convention  was  the  first  to  accept  the  new 
Constitution,  and  its  ratification  was  prompt  and  unanimous. 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Georgia,  and  Connecticut  soon 
followed.  Massachusetts,  after  a  sharp  struggle,  ratified  by 
a  close  vote.  Maryland  and  South  Carolina  came  next,  in- 
creasing the  number  of  ratifications  to  eight ;  so  that  if  one 
more  state  could  be  obtained,  the  Constitution  would  take  effect 
among  the  nine  that  had  ratified.  While  a  sharp  contest  was 
being  waged  in  the  New  York  and  Virginia  conventions,  New 
Hampshire  gave  a  favorable  vote,  and  the  fate  of  the  Consti- 
tution was  no  longer  in  doubt.  Virginia  next  ratified  by  a 
plurality  of  ten.  In  New  York,  ratification  was  finally  wrested 
from  a  hostile  convention  by  the  splendid  leadership  of  Hamil- 
ton. North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  gave  a  tardy  and 
reluctant  assent  in  1789  and  1790,  respectively,  after  the  new 
government  had  been  for  some  time  in  operation. 

Inauguration  of  the  New  Government.  After  nine  states 
had  ratified,  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  adopted  a 
resolution  fixing  the  first  Wednesday  in  March  as  the  date  of 
the  inauguration  of  the  new  government.  The  city  of  New  York 
was  named  as  the  temporary  seat  of  government.  After  some  de- 
lay, owing  to  the  fact  that  a  quorum  was  not  present  in  either 
branch,  Congress  assembled  on  April  6,  1789,  for  the  purpose 
of  counting  the  electoral  votes.  It  was  found  that  Washington 
was  the  unanimous  choice  for  President,  and  John  Adams  with 


231 


232  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

one  half  as  many  votes  became  Vice  President.  On  April  16, 
1789,  Washington  left  his  beautiful  country  home  at  Mount 
Vernon  to  take  up  the  heavy  duties  of  his  new  office.  His  journey 
to  New  York  City  was  one  continuous  march  of  triumph  amid 
throngs  of  people  eager  to  render  homage  to  the  man  who  had 
done  so  much  for  them.  Trenton  offered  the  tribute  that  touched 
him  most  deeply.  At  the  bridge  that  spanned  the  Assunpink 
River  —  across  which  Washington  had  led  his  army  to  the 
battle  of  Princeton  —  he  found  a  triumphal  arch,  supported 
by  thirteen  pillars.  It  bore  the  inscription :  "  The  Defender  of 
the  Mothers  will  be  the  Protector  of  the  Daughters.' '  As  he 
passed  beneath  the  arch,  young  girls  dressed  in  white  sang  an 
ode  and  strewed  flowers  before  him. 

Washington  reached  New  York  on  April  23,  and  was  welcomed 
by  crowds  of  enthusiastic  citizens.  His  reception  showed  how 
true  was  the  report  sent  by  the  French  minister  to  his  gov- 
ernment :  "  No  sovereign  ever  reigned  more  completely  in  the 
hearts  of  his  subjects  than  Washington  in  the  hearts  of  his 
people."  April  30,  1789,  was  the  date  set  for  the  inauguration. 
When  the  President-elect  appeared  on  the  balcony  of  Federal 
Hall,  he  saw  before  him  a  vast  multitude  of  people,  who  had 
assembled  to  witness  the  ceremony.  Chancellor  Livingston 
read  the  oath  of  office,  which  was  repeated  by  Washington : 
"  I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States."  Livingston  then  waved  his  hand  to  the  people  and 
shouted,  "  Long  live  George  Washington,  President  of  the 
United  States."  Loud  huzzas  rent  the  air,  while  the  artillery 
at  the  Battery  thundered  the  first  presidential  salute.  The  new 
government  was  fairly  launched  on  its  course. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  240-254. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  III,  ch.  XVI. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the   United  States,  ch. 
XIX. 


MAKING   THE   FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION  233 

Johnston,  A.,  Union  and  Democracy,  ch.  II. 

McLaughlin,    A.    C,    The   Confederation    and  the   Constitution,  ch. 

XVII. 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  V. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  Formation  of  the  Constitution.  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Gov- 
ernment and  Politics,  chs.  I-IV  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and 
Politics  in  the  United  States,  chs.  XVIII- XXIII,  XXV,  XXVIII  ; 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  chs.  IX- 
X  ;  Landon,  J.  S.,  Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  VI  ;  McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Readings  in  the  History 
of  the  American  Nation,  chs.  XV- XVIII  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United 
States,  I,  ch.  V. 

2.  Adoption  of  the  Constitution.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government 
and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XIX  ;  Landon,  J.  S.,  The 
Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the  United  States,  ch.  VII  ; 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  I,  ch.  VI. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship,  ch.  XIII. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Framing  the  Constitution.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  Amer- 
ican History,  chs.  II,  XVIII  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IV, 
pp.  31-37  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union,  ch.  VI. 

2.  The  Inauguration  of  Washington.  Barstow,  C.  D.,  A  New 
Nation  (Century  Readings),  pp.  3-24  ;  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  ch.  Ill  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IV, 
pp.  51-64. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SETTING   THE    NEW   GOVERNMENT   IN    MOTION 

The  Task  of  Organization.  "  I  walk  on  untrodden  ground," 
wrote  Washington,  soon  after  his  inauguration.  There  were 
indeed  no  precedents  for  the  President  or  Congress  to  follow. 
Each  new  step  must  be  taken  carefully,  for  the  destiny  of  the 
young  Republic  hung  on  the  outcome.  The  President  and 
Congress  had  before  them  the  task  of  creating  executive  depart- 
ments, organizing  a  judicial  system,  restoring  the  public  credit, 
managing  domestic  affairs,  and  regulating  our  dealings  with 
foreign  nations.  Thus  great  difficulties  had  to  be  met  by  our 
first  President,  then  in  his  fifty-seventh  year.  His  task  was 
harder  than  any  he  had  ever  undertaken,  but  he  worked  at  it 
with  unceasing  diligence,  and  made  a  splendid  success  of  his 
administration.  Only  the  hero  and  sage  of  the  Revolution 
could  have  successfully  laid  the  broad  foundation  on  which  the 
American  nation  has  been  built.  Washington  was  able  to  do 
this  because  he  alone  had  the  full  confidence  and  trust  of  the 
people.  Indeed,  had  not  the  people  felt  certain  that  he  would 
be  our  first  President,  the  Constitution  itself  would  probably  not 
have  been  adopted. 

The  President's  Social  Relations.  Washington  wisely  decided 
that  the  President  should  be  under  no  obligation  to  make  or 
return  social  calls.  He  held  a  public  reception  every  Tuesday 
afternoon,  at  which  every  one  was  required  to  wear  full  dress. 
His  own  dress  on  these  occasions  is  thus  described  by  a  con- 
temporary: "He  wore  his  hair  powdered  and  gathered  behind 
in  a  silk  bag.  His  coat  and  breeches  were  of  plain  black  velvet ; 
he  wore  a  white  or  pearl-colored  vest  and  yellow  gloves,  and  had 
a  cocked  hat  in  his  hand ;  he  had  silver  knee  and  shoe  buckles, 
and  a  long  sword  with  a  finely  wrought  and  glittering  steel  hilt. 

234 


SETTING   THE   NEW   GOVERNMENT    IN    MOTION     235 


The  coat  was  worn  over  this  sword,  which  had  a  scabbard  of 
finely  polished  leather." 

Washington  received  his  guests  with  a  formal  bow,  but 
did  not  shake  hands  at  his  receptions,  even  with  his  intimate 
friends.  He  gave  one  public  dinner  each  week,  to  which  were 
invited  the  high  government  officials,  members  of  Congress,  and 
distinguished  citizens.  The 
fare  was  simple,  and  after 
dessert  the  President  rose 
and  led  the  way  to  the 
drawing-room.  Mrs.  Wash- 
ington held  receptions  on 
Friday  evenings,  and  at 
these  the  President  "  ap- 
peared as  a  private  citizen, 
with  neither  hat  nor  sword  ; 
conversing  without  re- 
straint and  generally  with 
ladies."  The  company  was 
expected  to  retire  early. 
"The  general  retires  at 
nine,  and  I  usually  precede 
him,"  Mrs.  Washington 
would  say. 

The  Executive  Depart- 
ments. To  assist  the  Pres- 
ident in  carrying  on  his  work,  Congress  created  three  executive 
departments  :  the  Department  of  State,  the  Department  of  the 
Treasury,  and  the  Department  of  War.  At  the  head  of  each  was 
a  Secretary,  appointed  by  the  President.  For  Secretary  of  State, 
Washington  chose  Thomas  Jefferson ;  for  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton;  and  for  Secretary  of  War, 
General  Henry  Knox.  Edmund  Randolph  was  appointed  At- 
torney-General, as  the  chief  law  officer  of  the  new  government 
was  called. 

The  National  Courts.     The  judicial  machinery  of  the  govern- 
ment was  set  in  motion  when  Congress  passed  an  act  establishing 


Martha  Washington 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Gilbert 
Stuart,  in  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston. 


236  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

a  system  of  national  courts.  The  highest  of  these  was  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  consisting  of  a  Chief 
Justice  and  five  Associate  Justices.  President  Washington 
appointed  John  Jay  of  New  York  as  our  first  Chief  Justice. 
The  three  great  departments  of  government  were  now  organized, 
and  ready  for  business.  There  was  a  Congress,  consisting  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  to  make  the  laws ;  a 
President,  aided  by  four  chief  executive  officers,  to  enforce 
these  laws  and  carry  on  the  work  of  government ;  and  there 
were  national  courts  to  hear  and  decide  cases  arising  under  the 
Constitution  and  laws  of  the  United  States. 

The  Financial  Problem.  The  most  difficult  problem  before 
the  new  government  was  the  question  of  finance.  The  heavy 
expense  of  the  Revolution  had  put  the  country  deeply  in  debt. 
The  old  Confederation  government  could  not  raise  the  money 
needed  for  its  ordinary  expenses ;  much  less  could  it  pay  the 
interest  on  the  public  debt.  Always  a  pauper,  the  Confederation 
in  its  later  days  became  a  bankrupt.  The  new  government 
inherited  its  debts,  and  found  that  the  national  credit  at  home 
and  abroad  was  almost  destroyed. 

The  first  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
was  appointed  to  this  post  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  years.  Wash- 
ington loved  and  trusted  him,  and  Hamilton's  genius  for  finance 
soon  proved  the  wisdom  of  his  choice.  Hamilton  refused  to 
listen  to  those  who  suggested  paying  a  part  of  our  immense  debt, 
and  letting  part  of  it  go  unpaid.  He  told  Congress  that  the  new 
Republic  must  arrange  to  pay  every  dollar  of  its  indebtedness. 
At  this  time  we  owed  to  foreign  creditors,  chiefly  in  France  and 
Holland,  nearly  $12,000,000,  and  to  creditors  in  the  United 
States  $42,000,000.  Interest  to  the  amount  of  many  millions 
remained  unpaid.  It  was  of  course  impossible  to  pay  all  of  this 
debt  at  once.  So  Hamilton  planned  to  issue  new  bonds  for  the 
entire  amount,  and  exchange  these  for  the  old  certificates  of  in- 
debtedness. Each  year  the  interest  on  these  bonds,  and  a  part  of 
the  principal,  was  to  be  paid  out  of  revenue  raised  by  taxation. 

How  the  State  Debts  Were  to  be  Paid.  Hamilton  also  proposed 
that  the  national  government  should  assume  the  debts  of  the 


SETTING   THE   NEW   GOVERNMENT    IN   MOTION     237 

thirteen  state  governments,  amounting  to  about  $21,000,000. 
He  argued  that  the  state  debts  were  the  result  of  fighting  for  the 
common  cause,  and  should  therefore  be  paid  by  all.  Moreover, 
to  assume  the  state  debts  would  strengthen  the  Union  ;  it  would 
enlist  the  support  of  a  large  class  of  creditors  who  would  wish 
the  national  government  to  succeed  in  order  that  their  claims 
might  be  paid.  Some  states,  especially  those  at  the  South, 
had  small  debts  and  were  therefore  opposed  to  this  policy.  The 
plan  seemed  doomed  to  defeat ;  it  was  finally  carried  by  means 
of  a  political  bargain  or  "  deal."  A  permanent  location  for  the 
national  capital  had  not  yet  been  chosen.  Northern  members 
of  Congress  wanted  to  have  the  capital  at  Philadelphia ;  southern 
members  wanted  it  on  the  Potomac  River.  Finally,  Hamilton 
made  a  private  agreement  with  Jefferson.  Hamilton  promised 
to  persuade  several  northern  Congressmen  to  vote  to  locate  the 
capital  on  the  Potomac ;  Jefferson  in  turn  was  to  secure  the 
votes  of  Virginia's  Representatives  for  the  plan  of  assuming 
the  state  debts.  Both  measures  were  then  carried  through  Con- 
gress. 

For  ten  years  (1790-1800),  the  seat  of  government  was  to  be 
at  Philadelphia,  after  which  it  was  to  be  permanently  located  at 
some  point  on  the  Potomac.  In  1790,  Maryland  and  Virginia 
ceded  to  the  national  government  a  tract  of  land  ten  miles 
square,  lying  on  both  banks  of  the  Potomac.  The  Maryland 
portion  of  the  "  District  of  Columbia  "  became  the  seat  of  the 
national  government ;  the  part  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  river 
was  afterwards  given  back  to  Virginia. 

The  First  Bank  of  the  United  States.  Hamilton's  third 
financial  proposal  was  that  Congress  should  charter  a  national 
bank,  in  which  the  government  was  to  own  one  fifth  of  the  stock. 
This  bank  would  aid  the  government  in  making  loans  and  in 
the  collection  of  taxes.  Then,  too,  the  bank  was  to  issue  notes 
or  bills,  which  every  one  would  accept  at  face  value  on  account 
of  its  high  standing.  In  return  for  its  services  to  the  government, 
the  public  funds  were  to  be  deposited  with  the  bank,  which 
might  loan  them  out  at  interest  just  as  it  loaned  the  deposits  of 
individuals.     The  bank  measure  was  vigorously  opposed  by 


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SETTING   THE   NEW   GOVERNMENT    IN   MOTION     239 

Jefferson  and  his  followers  on  the  ground  that  the  Constitution 
gave  Congress  no  authority  to  charter  a  bank.  To  this  Hamilton 
replied  that  the  right  to  charter  a  bank  is  an  implied  power 
of  the  Constitution ;  that  is,  a  necessary  means  of  carrying 
out  powers  which  are  clearly  granted.  Again  he  carried  his  point, 
and  Congress  chartered  the  first  Bank  of  the  United  States  for  a 
period  of  twenty  years.  To  complete  the  financial  machinery 
of  the  country,  a  mint  was  established  at  Philadelphia.  Both 
gold  and  silver  were  to  be  coined,  and  for  sums  less  than  a  dollar 
the  decimal  system  was  to  be  used. 

These  financial  measures  proved  a  brilliant  success.  At  home 
and  abroad  our  national  credit  was  restored,  for  people  no  longer 
doubted  whether  the  United  States  would  pay  its  debts.  Our 
bonds  sold  at  par,  the  new  bank  prospered,  and  confidence  in  the 
future  was  high.  This  result  was  due  to  Hamilton's  well-laid  plans. 

The  First  Tariff  Act,  1789.  In  order  to  secure  the  revenue 
so  much  needed  by  the  government,  Congress  passed  as  one 
of  its  first  measures  a  general  tariff  act.  This  placed  duties  on 
many  imported  articles,  including  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  salt,  wines, 
iron  manufactures,  and  glass.  It  was  a  measure  like  the  Town- 
shend  Acts  of  colonial  days,  which  had  aroused  fierce  opposition  ; 
now,  however,  the  people  were  being  taxed  by  their  own  repre- 
sentatives. The  tax  was  paid  the  more  readily  because  it  was  an 
indirect  one ;  that  is,  the  tariff  duties  were  first  paid  by  the 
importer,  who  in  turn  passed  the  burden  on  to  the  consumer. 
All  persons  who  used  the  imported  goods  paid  their  share  of 
the  tax  in  the  increased  prices  which  they  paid  for  such  goods. 
In  his  famous  "  Report  on  Manufactures,"  Hamilton  had 
argued  for  a  tariff  both  as  a  means  of  revenue,  and  in  order  to 
protect  our  infant  manufactures  against  the  competition  of 
Europe's  older  and  better  equipped  factories.  Only  in  this 
way,  he  declared,  could  the  country  become  self-sustaining, 
and  capable  in  time  of  war  of  maintaining  itself  without  aid 
from  abroad.  Congress  approved  his  plan,  and  began  the 
policy  of  protecting  American  industries. 

The  Military  Strength  of  the  New  Government.  The  military 
powers  of  the  new  government  were  soon  put  to  the  test  by  two 


240  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

important  events.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Whisky  Rebellion. 
Since  the  import  duties  did  not  bring  enough  money  into  the 
treasury,  Congress  passed  a  law  taxing  the  manufacture  of 
whisky  in  the  United  States.  This  was  an  excise  tax,  levied 
directly  on  the  men  who  distilled  spirits.  It  was  bitterly  op- 
posed by  the  farmers  of  western  Pennsylvania,  where  there 
was  a  still  on  nearly  every  farm.  These  frontiersmen  were  shut 
off  by  the  mountains  from  easy  communication  with  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  while  their  water  route  to  New  Orleans  was  blocked 
by  the  action  of  the  Spaniards  in  closing  the  lower  Mississippi. 
So  the  Pennsylvania  farmers  were  distilling  their  corn  into 
whisky  in  order  to  reduce  its  bulk  and  help  solve  the  question 
of  transportation.  Instead  of  paying  the  new  excise  tax,  they 
tarred  and  feathered  the  tax  collectors.  The  revolt  spread  until 
two  thousand  men  were  under  arms  to  prevent  the  collection  of 
the  tax.  The  state  authorities  were  helpless  ;  plainly  this  was  the 
time  to  test  the  power  of  the  national  government  to  enforce 
its  laws.  Washington  promptly  called  out  the  militia  from  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania.  Fifteen  thousand  men  re- 
sponded to  the  call;  when  they  marched  to  Pittsburgh  the 
rebellion  collapsed,  and  its  leaders  were  placed  under  arrest. 
Even  the  distant  frontier  realized  that  there  was  now  a  national 
government  strong  enough  to  enforce  its  laws. 

Defeat  of  the  Indians  in  Ohio,  1794.  An  Indian  uprising  in 
the  Northwest  Territory  afforded  the  second  test  of  the  govern- 
ment's military  strength.  After  the  adoption  of  the  Ordinance  of 
1787,  many  settlers  moved  into  the  country  northwest  of  the 
Ohio  River.  The  Indians  resented  this  invasion  of  their  hunting 
grounds,  and  began  to  raid  the  settlements.  General  St.  Clair 
with  about  fifteen  hundred  men  was  sent  against  them ;  but 
in  spite  of  Washington's  warning,  "  Beware  of  a  surprise," 
St.  Clair's  force  fell  into  an  ambush  from  which  only  fifty  men 
escaped  uninjured.  Washington  then  sent  out  a  second  expedi- 
tion under  the  command  of  General  Anthony  Wayne,  the  hero 
of  Stony  Point.  In  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers,  near  Maumee, 
Ohio,  Wayne  routed  the  Indians  and  laid  waste  their  lands  for 
miles  around.  "  Wayne,"  said  the  Indians,  "  we  cannot  surprise, 


SETTING   THE    NEW   GOVERNMENT    IN    MOTION     241 


for  he  is  a  chief  who  never  sleeps."  Crushed  by  their  defeat,  the 
Indians  signed  a  treaty  ceding  nearly  all  of  the  land  now  included 
in  the  state  of  Ohio.  They  did  not  again  venture  on  the  war- 
path until  1811. 

The  Beginning  of  Political  Parties.  Before  the  end  of  Wash- 
ington's first  term,  men  began  to  group  themselves  into  two 
political  parties.  Hamil- 
ton's financial  measures 
pleased  the  property-owning 
class,  the  men  who  favored 
a  strong  central  government. 
In  the  bank  contest,  he 
argued  that  Congress  could 
charter  a  bank  as  a  result  of 
its  power  to  collect  taxes,  or 
under  the  power  to  regulate 
commerce.  In  other  words, 
Hamilton  believed  that  the 
Constitution  should  have  a 
liberal  construction,  so  as  to 
give  large  powers  to  the 
national  government.  His 
program  received  strong 
support  from  New  England, 
and  in  general  from  the  com- 
mercial and  trading  classes.  Since  they  believed  in  a  strong 
federal  government,  these  men  called  themselves  "  Federalists." 

Both  Jefferson  and  Madison  were  opposed  to  what  they  called 
Hamilton's  "  policy  of  consolidation."  They  favored  a  strict 
construction  of  the  Constitution,  permitting  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  exercise  only  those  powers  expressly  granted  by  the 
Constitution,  or  necessarily  implied  from  its  terms.  "  Necessary 
powers,"  Jefferson  said,  "  did  not  mean  convenient  powers." 
To  give  the  word  such  a  meaning  would  create  "  a  Congress  with 
power  to  do  whatever  would  be  for  the  good  of  the  United 
States  ;  and  as  they  would  be  the  sole  judges  of  the  good  or  evil, 
it  would  also  be  a  power  to  do  whatever  evil  they  please." 


Alexander  Hamilton 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Trumbull 
in  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 


% 


242  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

The  Growth  of  Party  Spirit.  Jefferson  regarded  Hamilton 
with  suspicion  because  of  the  latter's  preference  for  an  aristo- 
cratic system,  under  which  the  rich  and  the  well-born  should 
have  a  privileged  place  in  the  government.  Jefferson  had  faith 
in  the  common  people,  in  their  integrity  and  wisdom.  Hamilton 
distrusted  the  masses,  and  once  exclaimed  at  a  public  dinner, 
"  Your  people,  sir,  is  a  great  beast !  "  Hamilton  wished  to  keep 
the  government  in  the  hands  of  a  select  few,  those  best  fitted  by 
ability  and  training  to  carry  it  on.  But  Jefferson  believed  that 
all  men  should  have  the  right  to  vote,  to  belong  to  political 
parties,  and  to  hold  office. 

Soon  the  two  Cabinet  chiefs  were  hopelessly  at  odds,  "  pitted 
against  each  other  every  day,"  as  Jefferson  records,  "  like 
two  fighting  cocks."  Each  begged  Washington  to  choose  be- 
tween them  and  permit  the  other  to  resign.  Jefferson  became 
the  leader  of  the  growing  opposition  to  Hamilton's  policies, 
finding  his  chief  support  from  the  agricultural  class,  especially 
at  the  South.  Those  who  shared  his  views  took  the  name  Re- 
publicans, because  they  sympathized  with  the  Republican  party 
in  France.  Both  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  contributed  something 
of  value  to  our  ideas  about  government.  The  country  finally 
accepted  Hamilton's  theory  that  the  Constitution  should  be  so 
read  as  to  give  broad  powers  to  the  national  government.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  have  adopted  Jefferson's  view  that  the 
government  is  to  be  carried  on  by  all  the  people,  rather  than  by 
the  few  who  voted  in  Washington's  day. 

Washington  frowned  upon  party  spirit,  and  tried  to  main- 
tain an  impartial  attitude  between  the  warring  factions.  How- 
ever, in  1793  the  bitter  attacks  of  the  Republican  newspapers 
upon  his  foreign  policy  inclined  him  more  and  more  to  the 
Federalists.  Before  the  close  of  Washington's  second  term,  it  was 
evident  that  our  government  would  thereafter  be  carried  on  by 
political  parties,  each  of  which  would  nominate  its  candidate, 
and  strive  to  win  the  elections. 


SETTING   THE   NEW   GOVERNMENT    IN   MOTION     243 

REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  The  Federal  System  (American  Nation  Series),  chs.  I- 

III. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  chs.  II-IV. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the    United  States,  ch. 

XXVII. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XII. 
Johnston,  A.,   Union  and  Democracy,  ch.  III. 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  A   History  of  the  People  of  the    United  States,  I, 

ch.  VI. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  I,  ch.  VII. 

SPECIAL    TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  George  Washington.  Lodge,  H.  C,  George  Washington,  2  vols. 
(American  Statesmen  Series). 

2.  The  Financial  Problem.  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  ch.  V  ;  Dewey,  D.  R.,  Financial  History  of  the 
United  States,  chs.  III-VII  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and 
Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XXIX. 

3.  Organization  of  Political  Parties.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Govern- 
ment and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  pp.  460-462  ;  Woodburn, 
James  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United  States, 
chs.  I-II. 

4.  Alexander  Hamilton.  Lodge,  H.  C.,  Alexander  Hamilton 
(American  Statesmen  Series). 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship,  chs.  XIV- XVI. 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  I. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  George  Washington.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Colonists  and  the 
Revolution,  pp.  138-148  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation, 
ch.  VI  ;   Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  I,  ch.  I. 

2.  Alexander  Hamilton.  Conant,  C.  A.,  Alexander  Hamilton 
(Riverside  Biographical  Series)  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the 
Natio7i,  ch.  V. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
OUR  DIFFICULT   FOREIGN   RELATIONS 

The  French  Revolution.  In  the  first  year  of  Washington's 
administration,  a  great  Revolution  broke  out  in  France.  Unlike 
the  American  Revolution,  the  struggle  in  France  was  one 
between  classes.  The  common  people  rose  against  wrongs 
endured  for  centuries.  The  nobles  and  clergy  of  France  owned 
most  of  the  land,  but  paid  almost  no  taxes.  The  peasant  farmers 
paid  nine  tenths  of  all  the  taxes,  besides  a  heavy  rent  for  their 
lands.  Her  part  in  our  Revolutionary  War  cost  France  $300,- 
000,000,  and  the  close  of  that  war  found  the  French  government 
almost  bankrupt.  This  was  not  because  the  country  lacked 
resources,  but  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wealthy  classes 
refused  to  bear  their  share  of  the  public  expenses.  For  the  first 
time  in  nearly  two  hundred  years,  a  meeting  of  the  States- 
General  or  national  legislature  was  called  on  May  5,  1789.  This 
meeting  marks  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution.  The 
representatives  of  the  people  demanded  that  the  nobles  give  up 
their  special  privileges  and  help  form  a  free  constitution. 
France  was  soon  divided  into  two  parties :  the  Revolutionists, 
composed  chiefly  of  the  common  people ;  and  the  Royalists,  or 
party  of  the  king,  nobles,  and  clergy. 

Europe  Wars  upon  the  French  Republic.  News  of  this  Revo- 
lution was  at  first  hailed  with  delight  in  America.  But  soon 
violent  men  gained  control  of  the  movement.  They  beheaded 
King  Louis  XVI,  set  up  a  republic,  and  sent  to  the  guillotine 
thousands  of  persons  suspected  of  being  unfriendly  to  the 
Revolution.  All  France  was  under  the  spell  of  a  "  Reign  of 
Terror."  From  the  horrors  of  such  a  revolution,  sober-minded 
men  in  all  countries  turned  away  in  disgust.  The  execution  of 
the  French  king  in  1793  was  the  signal  for  the  monarchs  of 
Europe  to  declare  war  upon  the  new  republic.    Great  Britain, 

244 


OUR   DIFFICULT   FOREIGN   RELATIONS 


245 


Spain,  Austria,  and  Prussia  allied  themselves  against  France. 
That  nation  was  ready  to  fight  all  Europe  in  order  to  make  good 
the  principles  of  her  Revolution.  Then  began  the  conquest  of 
Europe  by  revolutionary  France.  Soon  Napoleon  appeared  to 
lead  her  victorious  armies,  and  for  the  next  twenty  years  Eu- 
rope was  drenched  with  blood.  The  carnage  ended  only 
when  Napoleon's  restless 
ambition  received  its  final 
check  at  Waterloo  (1815). 

Washington's  Proclama- 
tion of  Neutrality,  April  22, 
1793.  The  war  between 
France  and  Great  Britain 
put  us  in  a  difficult  position. 
We  were  bound  to  France 
by  gratitude,  by  a  treaty  of 
alliance,  and  by  sympathy 
with  a  sister  republic  strug- 
gling for  life.  France  ex- 
pected us  to  aid  her  against 
Great  Britain,  so  recently 
the  common  foe,  but  Wash- 
ington knew  that  our  'jMtmg 
Republic  was  in  no  condition 
for  war.  Gratitude  perhaps 
required  that  we  become  the  ally  of  France ;  self-preservation 
demanded  that  we  remain  neutral.  With  the  approval  of  his 
Cabinet,  the  President  issued  a  "  Proclamation  of  Neutrality." 
He  declared  that  the  United  States  "  would  pursue  a  conduct 
friendly  and  impartial  "  toward  both  France  and  Great  Britain. 
This  proclamation  was  the  beginning  of  a  foreign  policy  essential 
to  our  national  life.  If  the  young  Republic  was  to  endure,  it 
must  take  no  part  in  the  wars  of  European  powers.  The  United 
States  must  work  out  its  own  destiny,  holding  aloof  from  the 
political  struggles  of  the  Old  World. 

Citizen  Genet  and  His  Mission.     At  this  critical  time,  the 
French  Republic  sent  over  a  representative  named  Edmond 


George  Washington 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Gilbert 
Stuart  in  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston. 


246  THE   NEW  REPUBLIC 

Genet  to  enlist  the  aid  of  the  United  States.  On  landing  at 
Charleston,  Genet  received  an  enthusiastic  welcome.  He 
promptly  fitted  out  privateers  to  attack  British  commerce,  and 
enlisted  troops  for  an  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in 
Florida.  Genet  had  a  disagreeable  surprise  when  he  reached 
Philadelphia,  for  Washington  received  him  coldly.  The 
President  knew  that  to  permit  the  French  minister  to  send  out 
privateers  from  American  ports  meant  war  with  Great  Britain. 
Genet  claimed  that  under  the  treaty  of  alliance  we  were  bound 
to  aid  France.  Ignoring  Washington's  proclamation  of  neu- 
trality, he  continued  to  fit  out  privateers.  He  wrote  to  his  own 
government  that  the  President  "  was  a  weak  old  man,  under 
British  influence."  Carried  away  by  rashness,  he  threatened 
to  appeal  to  the  American  people  against  Washington.  This 
crowning  folly  disgusted  even  the  Republicans,  who  at  first 
had  received  Genet  with  open  arms.  Washington  finally  settled 
the  matter  by  demanding  his  recall.  The  French  government 
was  likewise  displeased  with  Genet's  conduct  and  even  ordered 
his  arrest ;  but  he  escaped  the  guillotine  by  remaining  in  the 
United  States.  France  sent  another  representative,  but  she 
resented  our  policy  of  neutrality,  and  was  very  bitter  over  the 
treaty  which  we  soon  afterwards  made  with  Great  Britain. 

Our  Grievances  against  Great  Britain.  Our  neutral  policy 
did  not  improve  our  relations  with  Great  Britain,  and  three  of 
our  grievances  now  seemed  likely  to  result  in  war  : 

(1)  British  garrisons  still  held  Detroit,  Oswego,  Niagara,  and 
other  northwestern  posts  which  belonged  to  us  under  the  treaty 
of  peace.  Great  Britain's  excuse  was  that  the  debts  due  to 
British  subjects  before  the  war  had  not  been  paid. 

(2)  British  cruisers  captured  American  ships  which  were 
carrying  food  supplies  to  France,  or  trading  with  the  French 
West  Indies.  Great  Britain  claimed  that  food  and  provisions 
were  "contraband  of  war,"  even  when  carried  by  neutral  ships. 
She  maintained  that  we  had  no  right  to  trade  with  the  French 
West  Indies  in  time  of  war,  because  France  did  not  permit  us  to 
trade  with  these  islands  in  time  of  peace.  Great  Britain  as  well  as 
France  claimed  the  right  to  establish  a  "paper  "  blockade  ;  that 


OUR   DIFFICULT    FOREIGN    RELATIONS  247 

is,  to  issue  decrees  prohibiting  neutral  vessels  from  trading  with 
the  enemy's  ports,  and  to  seize  them  if  they  attempted  to  do  so. 
The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  that  a  block- 
ade could  not  be  created  by  a  mere  decree  on  paper ;  it  must 
be  made  effective  by  warships  guarding  the  blockaded  ports. 

(3)  British  men-of-war  searched  American  ships  on  the  high 
seas,  in  order  to  seize  or  impress  American  sailors  who  had 
once  been  British  subjects.  Great  Britain  did  not  at  this  time 
recognize  the  right  of  her  subjects  to  become  the  naturalized 
citizens  of  another  country.  Even  American-born  sailors  were 
seized  in  this  way,  and  compelled  to  serve  in  the  British  navy. 

Jay's  Treaty,  1794.  War  with  Great  Britain  seemed  certain. 
In  this  crisis,  Washington  sent  John  Jay  as  special  envoy  to 
England,  where  he  succeeded  in  making  a  treaty.  Great  Britain 
agreed  to  surrender  the  northwestern  posts  by  June  1,  1796,  and 
to  pay  damages  for  such  seizures  of  our  merchant  vessels  as  were 
found  to  be  unlawful.  In  return,  the  United  States  promised  to 
pay  the  debts  due  to  British  subjects  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution.  But  concerning  two  of  our  chief  grievances,  the 
treaty  was  silent.  There  was  no  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
neutrals ;  no  promise  to  give  up  the  practice  of  search  and  the 
seizure  of  American  sailors.  Our  neutral  ships  were  still  liable  to 
capture  if  they  carried  food  supplies  to  French  ports,  or  if  they 
ignored  a  paper  blockade,  or  traded  with  the  French  West  Indies. 

A  storm  of  protest  greeted  Jay's  Treaty  when  it  was  published 
in  the  United  States.  Jay  was  burned  in  effigy  and  hanged  in 
effigy  from  Maine  to  Georgia ;  Hamilton  was  stoned  while  de- 
fending the  treaty  at  a  public  meeting  in  New  York  ;  the  British 
flag  was  dragged  through  the  streets  of  Charleston  and  burned 
before  the  residence  of  the  British  consul.  Even  Washington 
was  abused  in  language  which  he  said  "  could  scarcely  be  applied 
to  a  common  pickpocket."  But  Washington  and  the  Senate 
believed  that  it  was  a  choice  between  the  treaty  or  war,  and  they 
wisely  chose  the  treaty. 

The  Treaty  with  Spain.  Spain  controlled  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  and  owned  New  Orleans.  This  was  a  serious  matter 
to  the  men  of  Kentucky  and  the  Southwest.  These  frontiersmen 


248  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

demanded  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  as  well  as  a  place 
of  deposit  at  New  Orleans,  where  their  grain  and  tobacco 
could  be  stored  until  shipped  to  Europe.  A  treaty  was  made  with 
Spain  in  1795,  granting  these  demands.  Another  point  of  dispute 
was  settled  by  fixing  the  thirty-first  parallel  of  latitude  as  the 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  Spanish  Florida. 

Our  Commerce  in  the  Pacific.  While  the  United  States  was 
struggling  to  protect  its  commerce  in  the  Atlantic,  our  merchants 
were  boldly  reaching  out  for  a  share  in  the  Asiatic  trade.  As 
early  as  1784,  merchants  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  fitted 
out  the  Empress  of  China,  and  started  her  on  the  long  voyage  to 
Canton.  She  made  her  port  six  months  later,  exchanged  her 
cargo  for  Chinese  products,  and  returned  home.  Other  American 
ships  were  soon  making  similar  voyages  ;  in  a  single  year  (1789), 
fifteen  vessels  set  sail  for  the  Orient.  Our  first  ships  reached 
China  by  crossing  the  Atlantic  and  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  Later  the  favorite  route  was 
around  Cape  Horn  and  thence  up  to  our  northwest  coast,  where 
a  cargo  of  trinkets  would  be  bartered  with  the  Indians  for  otter 
and  seal  skins.  These  valuable  furs  were  then  carried  to  Canton 
and  traded  for  teas,  silks,  and  porcelains  for  the  Boston  market. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  early  voyages  was  that  of 
the  Columbia,  which  sailed  across  the  Pacific  to  China  and  re- 
turned by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  —  the  first  American 
ship  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  In  the  year  1792,  the  same 
ship  under  the  command  of  Captain  Gray  of  Boston  made  a 
voyage  of  great  political  as  well  as  commercial  importance. 
While  exploring  the  northwest  coast  a  little  above  the  forty- 
sixth  parallel,  Captain  Gray  entered  the  mouth  of  a  large  river 
and  sailed  for  thirty  miles  up  its  course,  trading  with  the  Indians. 
Gray  named  this  great  river  of  the  Northwest  the  Columbia,  and 
his  discovery  gave  us  our  claim  to  the  region  which  it  drained. 

Washington's  Farewell  Address.  Unanimously  reelected  to 
the  Presidency  in  1792,  Washington's  second  term  was  now 
drawing  to  a  close.  The  country  had  prospered  under  his  wise 
guidance.  Our  credit  stood  high,  trade  and  manufactures  had 
increased,   and  three  new  states  —  Vermont,   Kentucky,   and 


OUR   DIFFICULT   FOREIGN    RELATIONS 


249 


Tennessee  —  were  admitted  to  the  Union.  War  with  Great 
Britain  had  been  avoided,  and  domestic  insurrection  put  down 
with  a  firm  hand.  The  new  government  was  no  longer  an 
experiment. 

Longing  to  spend  his  few  remaining  days  at  Mount  Vernon, 
Washington  refused  to  become  a  candidate  for  a  third  term.  His 
last  care  was  to  prepare  his  Farewell  Address,  one  of  the  sublime 
documents  of  American  his- 
tory. Our  first  President 
pleaded  earnestly  for  a  true 
national  spirit,  for  unselfish 
devotion  to  the  Republic. 
He  spoke  of  the  dangers 
from  party  spirit  "  which 
agitates  the  community 
with  ill-founded  jealousies 
and  false  alarms."  Toward 
foreign  nations,  "  the  great 
rule  of  conduct  for  us  is,  to 
have  with  them  as  little 
political  connection  as  pos- 
sible. Observe  good  faith 
and  justice  toward  all  na- 
tions ;  cultivate  peace  and 
harmony  with  all."  Within 
two  years  after  his  retire- 
ment, Washington  passed  away  at  his  beloved  Mount  Vernon 
home  (December  14,  1799).  He  was  mourned  by  the  entire 
American  people,  and  the  story  of  his  life  remains  their  priceless 
heritage. 

John  Adams  Becomes  President,  1797.  John  Adams,  a 
Federalist,  became  our  second  President,  while  Thomas  Jefferson, 
his  Republican  opponent,  was  chosen  Vice  President.  In  the 
long  contest  with  Great  Britain,  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts 
had  nobly  served  his  country.  As  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  he  was  from  the  outset  a  staunch  advocate  of  inde- 
pendence.     Afterwards  sent  abroad  as  envoy  to  France  and 


John  Adams 

From   the  original  portrait  by  Gilbert 
Stuart. 


250 


THE    NEW   REPUBLIC 


Holland,  he  took  a  leading  part  in  drawing  up  the  peace  treaty 
of  1783,  and  was  appointed  our  first  minister  to  Great  Britain. 
Blunt  of  speech,  stubborn,  and  quick-tempered,  Adams  had  few 
of  the  qualities  of  the  popular  leader.  But  our  second  President 
was  a  man  of  lofty  ideals,  honest  in  word  and  deed,  with  the 
full  courage  of  his  convictions.     He  did  not  receive  the  hearty 

support  of  the  Feder- 
alist leaders,  especially 
Hamilton ;  and  this 
proved  a  serious  ob- 
stacle to  his  success  as 
President.  A  still 
greater  difficulty  was 
the  quarrel  with  France, 
which  Adams  inherited 
from  Washington's  ad- 
ministration. 

Our  Quarrel  with 
France.  France  had 
been  unfriendly  since 
our  refusal  to  aid  her 
against  Great  Britain ; 
she  was  indignant  over 
Jay's  Treaty,  which  gave 
to  Great  Britain  some 
privileges  not  granted 
to  France.  The  election 
of  Adams  was  another 
grievance,  for  the  Fed- 
eralists had  made  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  which  France  considered  a  breach  of 
faith.  Our  former  ally  now  seemed  bent  on  war.  She  ordered 
the  United  States  minister  to  leave  France,  and  each  day  brought 
news  of  the  capture  of  our  merchant  ships  by  French  cruisers. 
Hoping  to  prevent  war,  President  Adams  sent  to  France  three 
envoys,  John  Marshall,  Elbridge  Gerry,  and  Charles  C.  Pinck- 
ney.     A  disagreeable  surprise  awaited  these  envoys  at  Paris. 


The  U.  S.  Frigate  Constitution 

From  the  original  painting  by  Marshall  John- 
son, Jr. 

The  Constitution,  the  most  famous  of  our 
early  warships,  was  built  in  1797  and  carried 
44  guns.  It  is  still  preserved  at  the  Charles- 
town  Navy  Yard. 


OUR   DIFFICULT   FOREIGN   RELATIONS  251 

They  were  told  that  France  would  not  make  a  treaty,  or  even 
receive  a  minister  from  the  United  States,  unless  we  paid  a 
bribe  of  $250,000  to  the  corrupt  Directory  of  five  men  who 
governed  France.  To  this  shameful  demand,  the  reply  of  our 
envoys  was  :  "  No  !  not  a  sixpence  !  "  President  Adams  re- 
ported the  entire  affair  to  Congress.  He  did  not  name  the 
French  agents  who  had  demanded  the  bribe,  but  they  were 
referred  to  in  the  published  dispatches  of  our  envoys  as  Mr. 
X,  Mr  Y,  and  Mr.  Z.  So  this  incident  is  known  in  our  history 
asthe"XYZ  Affair." 

"  War  with  France!  "  was  the  universal  demand  when  the 
people  learned  how  our  envoys  had  been  treated.  "  Millions 
for  defense  ;  not  one  cent  for  tribute  !  "  became  the  rallying  cry. 
For  the  moment,  men  forgot  parties  and  remembered  only  that 
the  nation  had  been  insulted.  Every  one  joined  in  singing  the 
new  patriotic  song,  "Hail,  Columbia! "  and  in  cheers  for  "Adams 
and  Liberty."  Congress  increased  the  army,  and  Washington 
was  recalled  from  Mount  Vernon  to  become  commander  in  chief. 
The  navy  department  was  organized,  new  warships  were  built, 
and  many  of  our  merchant  vessels  were  commissioned  as 
privateers.  War  was  not  actually  declared,  but  there  was  some 
sharp  fighting  on  the  sea.  Our  little  navy  did  valiant  service, 
while  American  privateers  captured  many  French  ships.  France 
did  not  really  wish  war  with  this  country.  Talleyrand,  her 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  now  notified  President  Adams 
that  any  representative  sent  by  the  United  States  would  be 
properly  received.  The  new  ruler  of  France,  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, signed  a  treaty  which  gave  some  protection  to  our  neu- 
tral commerce,  and  restored  friendly  relations  between  the  two 
countries. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  1795.  The  Federalist  party 
reached  the  height  of  its  power  when  the  X  Y  Z  Affair  became 
public.  Moderation  forsook  the  party  in  the  hour  of  triumph, 
and  the  Federalist  leaders  determined  to  humble  their  political 
enemies.  The  Republican  papers  were  making  bitter  attacks 
upon  President  Adams  and  the  Federalist  party.  To  make 
matters  worse,  much  of  this  abuse  was  written  by  foreigners3 


252 


THE    NEW   REPUBLIC 


3 


either  Frenchmen,  or  refugees  from  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland.  These  men  took  sides  with  France  and  opposed  our 
neutral  policy.  Congress  finally  passed  two  severe  laws  intended 
to  silence  the  Republican  press  and  drive  the  abusive  foreigners 
out  of  the  United  States. 

(1)  The  Alien  Act  gave  the  President  authority  to  banish 
from  the  country  any  foreigner  whom  he  considered  dangerous 

to  its  welfare. 

(2)  The  Sedition  Act 
made  it  a  crime  to  speak, 
write,  or  publish  any  false 
or  malicious  statement 
against  the  President  or 
Congress,  "  with  intent  to 
defame  them,  or  to  bring 
them  into  disrepute." 

The  danger  from  these 
laws  was,  that  they  might 
be  enforced  so  as  to  make 
any  criticism  of  government 
a  crime.  Thousands  of  men 
went  over  to  the  Repub- 
lican party  because  they 
believed  that  these  measures 
would  destroy  free  speech 
and  a  free  press.  Thus  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  Acts 
helped  defeat  President 
Adams  for  reelection  and 
hastened  the  overthrow  of  the  Federalist  party.  Another  im- 
portant result  was  the  adoption  of  resolutions  of  protest  by  the 
legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

The  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions,  1798.  The  Ken- 
tucky resolutions  were  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  the 
Virginia  resolutions  by  James  Madison.  These  resolutions 
declared :  (1)  The  constitution  is  merely  an  agreement  or  com- 
pact between  the  states  as  partners.    (2)  The  national  govern- 


Washington  Monument 

Congress  approved  of  a  memorial  to 
the  first  president  late  in  December,  1770, 
but  it  was  not  until  July  4,  1848,  that  the 
corner  stone  was  laid.  When  it  was  156 
feet  high,  work  was  suspended  until  Au- 
gust, 1880.  The  dedication  exercises  were 
held  Feb.  22, 1885.     Total  height  555  feet. 


OUR   DIFFICULT   FOREIGN   RELATIONS  253 

merit  has  only  those  powers  given  it  by  this  compact.  (3)  The 
national  government  is  not  the  judge  of  its  own  powers,  but 
each  state  may  decide  for  itself  whether  a  law  of  Congress  is 
contrary  to  the  Constitution.  (4)  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws 
are  contrary  to  the  Constitution,  and  hence  "  void  and  of  no 
effect," 

Nullification  Urged  by  Kentucky.     Virginia  and  Kentucky 
invited  the  other  states  to  join  in  this  expression  of  disapproval, 


wktfSBBP1  -J. . . . Hw  1 1 <ll 


West  Point  Academy  from  the  Hudson  River 

West  Point  had  been  fortified  in  1776  and  a  huge  chain  stretched  from  shore 
to  shore  to  prevent  British  ships  from  ascending  the  river.  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, as  active  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Army,  1798-1800,  suggested  that  a 
military  academy  be  built  here. 

The  long  building  in  the  foreground  is  the  Riding  Hall ;  the  Cadet  Chapel 
with  tower  lies  on  the  hillside  ;  at  the  right  are  the  Mess  Hall  and  the  Memorial 
Building. 

but  none  did  so ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  legislatures  of 
several  northern  states  condemned  the  resolutions.  One  year 
later,  the  Kentucky  legislature  went  further,  and  asserted  the 
dangerous  doctrine  of  nullification,  which  had  been  suggested  by 
Jefferson.  The  claim  was  made  that  a  state  might  nullify,  or 
declare  not  binding,  a  law  of  Congress.  This  theory  struck  at 
the  power  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  which 
under  the  Constitution  is  the  final  judge  of  the  powers  of  the 


254 


THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 


national  government.  If  each  state  could  disobey  any  law  that 
it  does  not  like,  the  federal  government  would  be  at  the  mercy 
of  the  states.  Soon  there  would  be  no  Union  at  all. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1800.  The  presidential  campaign 
of  1800  was  a  bitter  one.  Adams  and  Pinckney  were  the  Feder- 
alist candidates;  Jefferson  and  Burr  were  nominated  by  the 

Republicans.  The  Feder- 
alists had  been  in  charge  of 
the  government  for  twelve 
years ;  and  in  spite  of  some 
mistakes,  they  had  accom- 
plished remarkable  results. 
Their  party  was  divided  in 
this  election,  owing  to  the 
mutual  jealousy  between 
Hamilton  and  Adams. 
Then,  too,  the  Republicans 
were  aided  by  the  unpopular 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws, 
also  by  the  heavy  increase 
in  government  expenses. 
But  the  most  important 
cause  of  the  Federalist  de- 
feat was  the  growing  spirit 
of  democracy  among  the 
masses  of  the  people.  The 
Federalists  favored  the  rule  of  "the  rich,  the  well-born,  and  the 
able,"  and  were  inclined  to  neglect  the  plain  common  people. 
So  the  masses  turned  to  Jefferson,  the  Republican  candidate. 
This  shrewd  political  leader  had  organized  the  farmers  and 
working  people  so  skillfully  that  the  election  resulted  in  a  com- 
plete victory  for  the  Republicans,  while  the  Federalists  were 
overthrown  for  all  time. 

The  House  of  Representatives  Elects  Jefferson.  A  new 
difficulty  now  arose.  The  Republicans  had  won  the  election, 
but  Jefferson  and  Burr  had  each  received  seventy-three  votes 
for  the  presidency.    So  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  which 


John  Marshall 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Henry 
Inman  in  the  Virginia  State  Library, 
Richmond. 


OUR   DIFFICULT    FOREIGN    RELATIONS  255 

the  Federalists  had  a  majority,  was  called  upon  to  decide 
between  the  two  Republican  candidates.  Angered  at  their 
defeat,  the  Federalists  planned  to  elect  Burr,  although  fully 
aware  that  Jefferson  was  the  choice  of  his  party  for  the 
presidency.  After  an  exciting  contest,  Hamilton's  influence 
led  to  the  election  of  Jefferson  on  the  thirty-sixth  ballot,  while 
Burr  became  Vice  President.  Much  as  he  disliked  Jefferson, 
Hamilton  preferred  him  to  the  unscrupulous  Burr.  As  a  result 
of  the  election  of  1800,  it  was  decided  to  amend  the  Constitution. 
By  the  Twelfth  Amendment,  adopted  in  1804,  the  electors  vote 
for  President  and  Vice  President  on  separate  and  distinct 
ballots. 

John  Marshall  Becomes  Chief  Justice.  The  Federalists  had 
lost  control  of  the  executive  and  legislative  departments,  but 
their  influence  upon  the  government  was  not  at  an  end.  Shortly 
before  he  went  out  of  office,  President  Adams  appointed  John 
Marshall,  a  Federalist  from  Virginia,  as  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  This  great  judge  continued  in  office  for  thirty- 
four  years.  His  decisions  favored  a  liberal  construction  of  the 
Constitution  and  strengthened  the  powers  of  the  national 
government.  So,  although  the  Federalist  party  was  overthrown, 
its  principle  of  broad  national  powers  became  the  law  of  the 
land  and  influenced  our  entire  national  history. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  The  Federal  System,  chs.  VI,  XV- XIX. 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  chs.  VI- VIII. 

Johnston,  A.,  Union  and  Democracy,  chs.  IV,  VI. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  chs.  VIII- 
X. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Jay's  Treaty,  pp.  244-258  ;  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  pp. 
258-267  ;    Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions,  pp.  267-278. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  I,  chs.  XI- XII. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  ch.  IV. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union,  pp.  168-171. 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE   POLICIES   OF   JEFFERSON 

Jefferson's  Ideas  of  Government.  The  inauguration  of  the 
first  Republican  President  was  hailed  with  delight  throughout 
the  Union.  While  Jefferson  was  taking  the  oath  of  office  in  the 
new  capital  on  the  Potomac,  the  whole  country  was  busy  with 

bell-ringing  and  cannonad- 
ing. Jefferson  was  every- 
where popular  with  the 
plain,  common  people,  and 
his  election  was  regarded 
as  the  triumph  of  democ- 
racy. The  new  President 
was  a  man  of  plain  dress 
and  simple  manners,  firmly 
opposed  to  all  extravagance 
and  display.  He  promptly 
did  away  with  the  weekly 
levees  or  formal  receptions 
that  had  been  held  by 
Washington  and  Adams ; 
and  in  many  other  respects 
"  Jeffersonian  simplicity  " 
became  the  order  of  the  day. 
He  made  another  change 
from  what  he  considered  the  "  monarchical  practice  "  of  our 
first  two  Presidents.  Instead  of  going  before  the  assembled 
Houses  to  read  his  messages  as  Washington  and  Adams  had 
done,  Jefferson  sent  written  messages  to  Congress,  to  be  read 
in  each  house  by  its  clerk  or  secretary.  His  example  in  this 
respect  has  since  been  followed  by  all  of  our  Presidents  except 

256 


Thomas  Jefferson 

From  the  original  painting  by  Gilbert 
Stuart. 


THE   POLICIES   OF   JEFFERSON  257 

Woodrow  Wilson,  who  went  back  to  the  earlier  practice  of  ap- 
pearing before  Congress  in  person. 

In  his  inaugural  address,  Jefferson  stated  the  principles  by 
which  he  would  be  guided  as  President.  He  promised  to  preserve 
the  national  government  in  all  its  vigor  "  as  the  sheet  anchor  of  ' 
our  peace  at  home,  and  safety  abroad."  He  hoped  for  "  peace, 
commerce,  and  honest  friendship  with  all  nations,  entangling  / 
alliances  with  none."  Above  all,  he  urged  the  most  strict  "  econ- 
omy in  public  expense."  This  principle  of  economy  was  faith- 
fully carried  out  by  Albert  Gallatin,  the  new  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  By  cutting  down  the  army  and  selling  most  of  the 
ships  in  our  little  navy,  military  expenses  were  decreased, 
although  this  policy  left  the  nation  with  practically  no  means  of 
defending  its  rights.  The  unpopular  whisky  tax  was  repealed. 
The  cost  of  running  the  government  was  reduced,  so  that  most 
of  its  revenues  could  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  national 
debt.  In  eight  years,  Gallatin's  skillful  management  reduced 
this  debt  nearly  one  half. 

Napoleon  Secures  Louisiana  from  Spain.  The  most  impor- 
tant event  of  Jefferson's  administration  was  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana,  the  vast  unexplored  region  lying  between  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  territory  had  been 
given  to  Spain  in  1763  by  a  treaty  that  France  ever  afterwards 
regretted.  The  first  year  of  Jefferson's  administration  saw 
Napoleon  master  of  Europe,  as  well  as  ruler  of  France.  Napoleon 
dreamed  of  restoring  the  colonial  empire  wrested  from  France 
on  the  Plains  of  Abraham.  His  ambition  seemed  about  to  be 
realized ;  for  in  1800,  he  persuaded  the  king  of  Spain  to  cede 
Louisiana  back  to  France.  Alarming  news  this  for  the 
Americans,  especially  for  the  western  settlers.  From  a  weak 
nation  like  Spain,  we  had  little  to  fear  as  a  neighbor.  It  was 
quite  another  matter  to  have  the  strongest  military  power  of 
Europe  in  control  of  the  Mississippi,  cutting  off  the  outlet  of  our 
commerce,  and  blocking  our  westward  march  to  the  Pacific. 
Even  Jefferson,  the  friend  of  France,  declared :  "  There  is  on 
the  globe  one  single  spot,  the  possessor  of  which  is  our  natural 
and   habitual   enemy.       It   is   New   Orleans.   ,   .   .       France, 


258  THE   NEW    REPUBLIC 

placing  herself  at  that  door,  assumes  to  us  the  attitude  of  de- 
fiance." 

Our  Purchase  of  Louisiana,  1803.     To  make  matters  worse, 

the  Spanish  commander  at  New  Orleans  suddenly  took  away 

°)     our  right  to  deposit  goods  at  that  port  (1802).     fhis  meant 

the  blocking  of  the  Mississippi  to  American  trade.  It  would  also 


The  Cabildo,  Jackson  Square,  New  Orleans 

The  meeting  place  of  the  Spanish  municipal  authorities  from  1795  to  the  day 
of  transfer  to  French  authority  November  30,  1803.  In  the  same  room  on 
the  second  floor,  later  the  meeting-place  of  the  Louisiana  Supreme  Court, 
Governor  Claiborne  received  the  keys  of  the  city  from  the  French  governor, 
Laussat,  December  20,  1803. 

The  lower  floor  is  now  used  for  a  Municipal  Court,  and  the  upper,  since  1910, 
has  been  a  part  of  the  State  Museum. 

mean  war  sooner  or  later ;  for  the  men  of  the  West  would  not 
long  endure  this  closing  of  their  gateway  to  the  world's  markets. 
Jefferson  saw  that  he  must  act  at  once,  or  these  impatient 
frontiersmen  would  seize  New  Orleans  and  bring  on  a  war.  So 
the  President  sent  James  Monroe  as  special  envoy  to  Paris,  with 
instructions  to  purchase  New  Orleans,  together  with  the  strip 
of  territory  to  the  eastward. 


THE   POLICIES   OF   JEFFERSON 


259 


Meantime,  Napoleon  felt  obliged  to  give  up  his  plans  for 
a  colonial  empire.  War  with  Great  Britain  was  at  hand,  and 
Napoleon  knew  that  he  could  not  defend  Louisiana  against  the 
mistress  of  the  seas.  In  sore  need  of  money  for  his  armies, 
Napoleon  declared  that  "  it  was  best  to  sell  when  you  could, 
what  you  were  certain  to  lose."  To  the  surprise  of  our  envoys, 
he  suddenly  offered  to  sell  to  the  United  States  not  New  Orleans 
alone,  but  the  whole  of  the  vast  tract  in  the  interior.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  1803  the  treaty  was  signed  by  which  we  secured 
Louisiana  for  $15,000,000.     Napoleon  declared  that  he  made 


New  Orleans  in  1803 

From  the  painting  by  Boqueta  de  Woissera  in  the  Louisiana  State  Museum, 
showing  the  saw  mills  in  the  foreground,  the  shipping  in  the  river,  and  the  city, 
from  the  Marigny  plantation. 


the  cession  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  price,  as  from  motives 
of  policy.  "  This  accession  of  territory  strengthens  forever  the 
power  of  the  United  States.  I  have  just  given  to  England  a 
maritime  rival  that  will  sooner  or  later  humble  her  pride." 

Jefferson  was  at  first  inclined  to  doubt  whether  the  Con- 
stitution gave  our  government  the  right  to  purchase  foreign 
territory  and  incorporate  it  into  the  Union.  But  he  knew  that 
the  Louisiana  Territory  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
growth  of  our  country,  and  he  finally  concluded  that  "  the  less 
said  about  the  constitutional  question,  the  better."     Some  of 


260  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

the  New  England  Federalists  opposed  the  purchase  because 
they  thought  it  would  lessen  the  future  importance  of  their  own 
section ;  but  the  treaty  was  promptly  ratified  by  the  necessary 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate. 

Results  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  (1)  This  purchase 
more  than  doubled  the  area  of  the  United  States.  It  added 
an  imperial  domain  of  875,000  square  miles,  from  which  thir- 
teen states  have  since  been  formed. 

(2)  It  made  possible  our  westward  expansion  to  the  Pacific. 

(3)  It  encouraged  immigration  from  Europe  by  opening  up  a 
vast  area  of  cheap  lands. 

(4)  The  purchase  satisfied  the  western  settlers,  for  it  secured 
the  natural  outlet  for  their  commerce  at  New  Orleans,  which 
Spain  had  closed. 

(5)  War  with  France  was  avoided,  a  war  almost  certain  to  fol- 
low had  the  French  attempted  to  colonize  Louisiana. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Explore  the  Great  West,  1804-1806.  Even 
before  Louisiana  came  into  our  possession,  President  Jefferson  was 
planning  an  exploring  expedition  into  the  vast  unknown  country 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  To  penetrate  the  great  West,  with  its 
mighty  rivers  and  majestic  mountains,  its  plains  covered  with 
herds  of  buffalo,  its  valleys  peopled  with  warlike  Indians,  — 
this  was  indeed  an  exploration  to  thrill  the  hearts  of  its  leaders. 
So  thought  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark,  the  two 
young  Virginians  chosen  to  command  the  expedition.  These 
pathfinders  were  to  follow  the  Missouri  River  to  its  source,  then 
cross  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  descend  the  nearest  stream 
flowing  to  the  Pacific. 

Lewis  and  Clark  started  up  the  Missouri  from  a  point  near 
St.  Louis  in  May,  1804.  There  were  forty-five  men  in  all,  in  three 
boats.  After  a  difficult  journey  of  sixteen  hundred  miles,  the 
party  reached  the  villages  of  the  Mandan  Indians,  in  North 
Dakota,  where  they  spent  the  winter.  In  the  following  spring  the 
explorers  reached  Great  Falls,  where  the  Missouri  passes  over 
a  series  of  cataracts,  forming  thirteen  miles  of  cascades  and 
rapids.  Hauling  the  boats  and  luggage  around  the  falls  was  no 
easy  task  ;  but  at  last  the  expedition  reached  the  highest  source 


THE   POLICIES   OP   JEFFERSON 


261 


Exploring  the  Great  West,  1803-1806 


of  the  Missouri.  Here  the  boats  were  hidden,  and  the  leaders 
prepared  for  the  difficult  journey  across  the  mountains.  For- 
tunately, a  friendly  band  of  Shoshone  Indians  was  at  hand, 
from  whom  Captain  Lewis  secured  horses.  Then  followed 
weeks  of  hardship  and  hunger,  while  his  men  worked  their  way 
through  the  forest-clad  passes  of  the  Rockies.  They  finally 
came  to  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Snake  River,  where  canoes 
were  built  in  which  the  entire  party  soon  reached  and  floated 
down  the  swift-flowing  Columbia.  On  November  7,  1805,  the 
roar  of  breakers  was  heard  in  the  distance.  The  explorers  had 
reached  their  goal  at  last.  On  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  they  built 
a  camp,  where  they  passed  a  second  dreary  winter. 

The  return  journey  was  begun  in  March,  1806  ;  and  September 
of  that  year  found  the  intrepid  explorers  again  at  St.  Louis. 
Lewis  and  Clark  had  performed  a  feat  without  parallel  in  the 
history  of  exploration.  They  were  the  first  white  men  to  cross 
the  continent  within  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States.  Their 
journal  of  the  expedition  gave  the  country  its  first  definite 
knowledge  about  the  great  West.  These  pathfinders  opened 
the  way  to  the  American  fur  trader  and  trapper,  soon  to  be 
followed  by  the  settler.  Most  important  of  all,  their  explora- 
tion of  the  Oregon  country  strengthened  our  title  to  that  region, 
as  against  the  claims  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia. 


; 


C 


262  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

Exploration  of  the  Southwest,  1805-1806.  Another  ex- 
plorer, Zebulon  Pike,  led  an  expedition  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
Mississippi  in  an  attempt  to  discover  its  source.  The  following 
year,  Pike  made  a  second  exploration  across  Kansas  and 
Colorado,  and  into  New  Mexico.  In  Colorado  he  discovered 
and  ascended  the  lofty  peak  that  bears  his  name.  With  a 
dozen  of  his  hardiest  followers,  he  then  struck  through  the 
mountains  and  at  last  reached  the  Rio  Grande.  Here  the 
little  party  was  seized  by  the  Spaniards  and  held  for  some  time 
as  prisoners. 

The  Conspiracy  of  Aaron  Burr,  1806-1807.  Following  close 
upon  these  explorations,  the  West  was  the  scene  of  another 
expedition  led  by  the  brilliant  but  unprincipled  Aaron  Burr. 
Twice  Burr  had  failed  to  reach  the  goal  of  his  ambition,  first 
the  presidency,  and  afterwards  the  governorship  of  New  York. 
Both  defeats  he  laid  at  the  door  of  his  personal  enemy,  Alexander 
Hamilton.  Duelling  was  then  a  common  practice  ;  and,  although 
Burr  was  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  he  sent  a  challenge 
to  Hamilton  and  killed  him  in  the  encounter.  This  ended  Burr's 
political  career,  but  soon  afterwards  he  formed  a  plan  to  conquer 
the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  Southwest,  and  establish  a 
government  of  which  he  should  be  the  head.  Jefferson  believed 
that  Burr  also  intended  to  capture  New  Orleans  and  detach  the 
Mississippi  Territory  from  the  Union.  While  he  was  descending 
the  Mississippi  River  with  an  armed  force  of  one  hundred  men, 
Burr  was  arrested  by  federal  officers  and  placed  on  trial  for 
treason.  He  was  acquitted  of  the  charge  because  it  could  not 
be  proven  that  he  had  actually  levied  war  against  the  United 
States;  but  he  was  dishonored  for  life,  and  died  many  years 
later,  a  broken-hearted  man. 

War  with  the  Barbary  Pirates.  To-day  it  seems  almost 
beyond  belief  that  the  small  Mohammedan  states  of  northern 
Africa  were  able  for  many  years  to  plunder  the  commerce  of 
Christian  nations.  Not  only  did  these  pirates  attack  vessels, 
but  they  often  seized  the  crews  and  passengers  and  held  them 
for  ransom.  Instead  of  declaring  war  on  the  Barbary  States,  the 
maritime  powers  of  Europe  purchased  peace  by  paying  them  an 


THE    POLICIES   OF   JEFFERSON 


263 


annual  tribute.  This  situation  resulted  from  the  mutual  jealousy 
of  the  European  powers.  Each  nation  chose  to  buy  peace  for  it- 
self, rather  than  go  to  war;  for  after  peace  was  purchased,  the 
pirates  were  left  free  to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  other  nations. 
The  United  States  at  first  followed  this  shameful  example,  and 
for  sixteen  years  paid  annual  tribute  to  the  rulers  of  Tripoli, 
Morocco,  Algiers,  and  Tunis.  Early  in  Jefferson's  administra- 
tion, still  larger  payments  were  demanded,  and  even  the  peace- 
loving  President  concluded  that  war  was  less  expensive  than 


Monticello 

A  view  from  the  south  terrace  of  the  house  Jefferson  built  after  his  own  design. 
Unlike  Mount  Vernon  and  other  southern  plantations,  there  were  no  negro 
quarters  and  outbuildings  around  the  house  itself.  From  the  northeast  terrace 
Jefferson  observed  through  a  telescope  the  workmen  building  the  University 
of  Virginia,  which  he  founded  at  Charlottesville. 


"  tribute  and  ransom."  Commodore  Preble's  little  squadron 
soon  compelled  Tripoli  to  agree  to  peace  without  tribute.  Thi-; 
taught  the  other  Barbary  States  a  lesson,  and  they  no  longer 
molested  our  commerce. 

The  United  States  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  More  dangerous 
to  our  commerce  than  the  Barbary  pirates  were  the  two  chief 
powers  of  Europe,  Great  Britain  and  France.  War  between  these 
countries  broke  out  anew  in  1803.  Napoleon  was  then  emperor 
of  France,  and  dictator  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  But  on  the 
ocean,  Britain  reigned  supreme,  for  Nelson's  brilliant  victory  at 


264  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

Trafalgar  crushed  the  last  hope  of  French  naval  power.  While 
the  nations  of  Europe  were  engaged  in  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
American  shipowners  were  reaping  the  rich  harvest  of  neutrality. 
With  all  the  world  at  war,  ours  was  the  only  flag  under  which 
cargoes  could  be  carried  to  European  ports.  Trade  between 
France  and  her  colonies  in  the  West  Indies  was  in  our  hands, 
for  Great  Britain's  powerful  navy  had  driven  her  enemy's  flag 
from  the  ocean. 

British  Orders  and  French  Decrees.  The  warring  nations 
paid  little  heed  to  the  rights  of  neutrals.  Great  Britain  was 
determined  to  stop  our  profitable  trade  with  the  French  West 
Indies.  She  claimed  that  by  carrying  food  supplies  from  the 
West  Indies  to  France  we  were  helping  Napoleon  even  more 
than  if  we  supplied  him  with  men  and  guns.  Since  France  did 
not  permit  us  to  trade  with  her  West  Indies  in  time  of  peace, 
Great  Britain  said  that  she  could  not  turn  this  trade  over  to  us 
in  time  of  war.  In  the  years  1806-1807,  both  Great  Britain 
and  France  began  to  issue  orders  and  decrees  against  neutral 
commerce.  Napoleon,  in  his  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees,  de- 
clared the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade,  authorized 
the  capture  of  any  ship  sailing  to  or  from  the  ports  of  Great 
Britain  or  her  colonies,  and  ordered  the  seizure  of  any  neutral 
ship  that  permitted  itself  to  be  searched  by  a  British  vessel. 
This  was  only  a  paper  blockade,  since  the  French  navy  had 
been  almost  completely  destroyed.  Great  Britain  replied  with 
the  Orders  in  Council,  forbidding  neutral  trade  with  the  ports 
of  France  and  her  allies. 

As  a  result  of  these  decrees,  an  American  ship  bound  for 
\  any  European  port  outside  of  Sweden,  Russia,  or  Turkey, 
was  liable  to  capture.  The  decrees  were  unjust,  and  contrary  to 
the  principles  of  international  law  as  recognized  to-day ;  but 
Great  Britain  and  France  were  locked  in  a  life  and  death  struggle 
— ^  which  did  not  take  into  account  the  rights  of  neutral  nations. 
So  during  the  nine  years  between  1803  and  1812,  American 
commerce  suffered  enormous  losses.  The  British  captured  nine 
hundred  of  our  vessels,  the  French  more  than  five  hundred. 
Great  Britain  and  France  abused  us  alike  ;  but  the  British  made 


THE   POLICIES   OP   JEFFERSON  265 

more  captures,  impressed  more  seamen,  and  aroused  the  greater 
hostility. 

The  Attack  on  the  Chesapeake.  For  many  years,  Great 
Britain  claimed  and  exercised  the  right  to  search  foreign  vessels 
for  supposed  deserters  from  the  British  navy.  In  this  way 
thousands  of  American  sailors,  many  of  whom  had  never  set 
foot  on  British  soil,  were  impressed  and  forced  to  the  decks  of 
British  men-of-war.  The  crisis  came  when  the  British  ship 
Leopard  fired  upon  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  whose 
commander  refused  to  submit  to  the  right  of  search.  The 
Leopard  at  once  opened  fire,  killing  three  American  sailors 
and  wounding  eighteen  others.  The  Chesapeake  was  not  prepared  <--? 
for  a  fight,  and  Captain  Barron  was  forced  to  haul  down  his 
flag.  British  officers  then  boarded  the  Chesapeake,  while  the 
American  sailors  stood  in  ranks  for  inspection.  Four  sailors 
were  seized,  three  of  whom  were  American-born,  after  which 
the  Chesapeake  was  permitted  to  drift  back  to  Hampton  Roads. 

The  entire  country  was  stirred  by  this  outrage,  and  there  were 
loud  demands  for  war.  President  Jefferson  resisted  this  demand, 
for  he  reasoned  that  the  act  was  that  of  the  British  admiral 
alone,  and  was  probably  unauthorized  by  his  government.  To 
allay  popular  resentment,  the  President  issued  a  proclamation 
ordering  all  British  warships  out  of  American  waters.  He  also 
instructed  our  minister  at  London  to  demand  a  disavowal  of 
the  act  and  restoration  of  the  men  impressed.  The  British 
government  complied  with  this  demand,  restored  the  im- 
pressed seamen  to  the  deck  of  the  Chesapeake  and  paid  a  money 
award  to  the  wounded  sailors  and  to  the  families  of  those  slain. 
Great  Britain  announced  that  she  did  not  claim  the  right  to 
search  warships  for  deserters,  but  only  insisted  upon  the  right 
to  search  merchant  ships.  Thus  the  Chesapeake  affair  was  due 
to  the  blunder  of  an  individual  commander,  whose  act  was 
disavowed  by  his  own  government. 

The  Embargo  Act,  1807.  A  great  leader  amid  political 
storms,  Jefferson  was  helpless  when  the  war-clouds  gathered. 
Between  the  orders  and  decrees  of  France  and  Great  Britain, 
there  was  only  one  of  three  courses  for  our  country  to  follow. 


266  THE   NEW   REPUBLIC 

We  must  fight  for  our  neutral  rights,  tamely  submit,  or  abandon 
the  ocean.  Jefferson  chose  the  last.  He  believed  that  Great 
Britain  and  France  could  not  exist  without  the  food  supplies 
of  the  United  States.  On  his  recommendation,  Congress 
passed  an  Embargo  Act,  which  forbade  American  vessels  to 
sail  to  any  foreign  port.  Jefferson  believed  that  the  Embargo 
would  starve  Great  Britain  and  France  into  recognition  of  our 
neutral  rights. 

But  the  Embargo  did  far  more  harm  to  the  United  States 
than  to  Great  Britain  or  France.  In  a  single  year  our  export 
trade  dropped  from  $110,000,000  to  $22,000,000.  Our  ship- 
building industry  was  crushed,  while  American  farmers  were 
almost  ruined  by  the  loss  of  their  foreign  markets.  From 
commercial  New  England  came  strong  protests,  coupled  with 
threats  of  secession.  France  and  Great  Britain  treated  the 
Embargo  with  contempt.  Napoleon  ordered  the  seizure  of  all 
American  vessels  in  French  ports,  and  when  our  minister 
protested,  he  replied  that  he  was  merely  aiding  President 
Jefferson  to  enforce  the  Embargo.  Realizing  that  the  measure 
had  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  Congress  repealed  the 
Embargo  in  the  last  days  of  Jefferson's  second  term.  In  its 
place  Congress  passed  a  Non-Intercourse  Act,  forbidding  trade 
with  France  and  Great  Britain  so  long  as  they  enforced  their 
unjust  decrees  against  our  commerce. 

James  Madison  Becomes  President,  March  4,  1809.  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  our  first  President,  Jefferson  declined  to 
become  a  candidate  for  a  third  term.  Toward  the  close  of 
January  he  wrote :  "  Five  weeks  later  will  relieve  me  from  a 
drudgery  to  which  I  am  no  longer  equal."  His  successor  as 
President  was  his  close  friend  and  Secretary  of  State,  James 
Madison ;  while  George  Clinton  was  reelected  Vice  President. 
Madison  was  a  Virginian,  and  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Republican  party  formed  by  Jefferson.  He  had  rendered  dis- 
tinguished service  in  helping  to  frame  our  federal  Constitution, 
and  had  served  with  ability  in  the  Virginia  legislature  and  in 
Congress.  Madison  was  a  peace-loving  man,  wise  in  counsel, 
and  a  great  legislator.    His    nature  and  training  made  him 


THE   POLICIES   OF   JEFFERSON  267 

better  fitted  to  deal  with  measures  than  with  men ;  and  he 
proved  a  timid  and  irresolute  Executive  during  the  troubled 
times  that  were  to  follow. 

REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XIV. 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  chs.  X-XIV. 

Channing,  Edward,  The  Jefjersonian  System  (American  Nation 
Series). 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  chs.  XVI- 
XVIII. 

Johnston,  A.,   Union  and  Democracy,  chs.  VII- X. 

McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation, 
ch.  XX. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  II,  chs. 
XIII- XVII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :    Treaty  with  France  for  Cession  of  Louisiana,  pp.  279-282. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  I,  chs.  XIV- XV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   PUPILS 

1.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  Romance  of  American 
Expansion,  ch.  II  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  171- 
183  ;  Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  ch.  XVI  ;  Great 
Epochs  in  American  History,  IV,  pp.  14-154  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Ex- 
pansion of  the  American  People,  chs.  XVI- XVII  ;  Wright,  H.  C, 
American  Progress,  ch.  III. 

2.  The  Conspiracy  of  Aaron  Burr.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  ch.  VII  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IV, 
pp.  180-185  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union,  pp.  189-191  ; 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  IV  ;  Sparks,  E.  E., 
Expansion  of  the  American  People,  pp.  211-215. 

3.  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great 
West,  pp.  184-197  ;  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History, 
ch.  VI  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IV,  pp.  159-169  ;  Wright, 
H.  C,  American  Progress,  ch.  IV. 

4.  Thomas  Jefferson.  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IV, 
pp.  125-139  ;  Merwin,  H.  C,  Thomas  Jefferson  (Riverside  Bio- 
graphical Series)  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,  ch. 
VII  ;  Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  I,  ch.  III. 


26§ 


CHAPTER   XXI 


THE   WAR   OF    1812 


Great  Britain  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  The  effort  to  pro- 
tect our  commerce  by  means  of  the  Embargo  and  Non-Inter- 
course Acts  proved  in  vain  ;  and  the  crisis  in  our  relations  with 
Great  Britain  came  just  three  years  after  President  Madison 
took  office.  For  many 
years,  the  island  kingdom 
had  been  engaged  in  a  life 
and  death  struggle  to  stay 
the  advance  of  Napoleon 
in  Europe.  Great  Britain 
faced  then,  just  as  in  the 
World  War  of  our  own  day, 
a  military  despot  who  was 
seeking  to  dominate  the 
whole  world.  In  1812  Na- 
poleon made  ready  to  in- 
vade Russia  in  order  to  close 
the  ports  of  Europe  to  Brit- 
ish trade.  He  planned  in 
this  way  to  starve  into  sub- 
mission the  island  that  he 
could  not  invade.  Great 
Britain  was  just  as  deter- 
mined to  cut  off  Napoleon's 
source  of  supplies.  The  thousand  ships  of  her  navy  ruled  the 
oceans.  The  captains  of  nine  hundred  captured  American 
vessels  could  testify  to  their  vigilance.  "  Trade  carried  on  with 
the  enemies  of  England  is  war  in  disguise,"  was  the  only  answer 
to  our  protests.      So  our  War  of  1812  came  about  largely  as  a 

269 


James  Madison 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Gilbert 
Stuart  in  the  Art  Gallery,  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Brunswick,  Maine. 


270  THE    RISE    OF  AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

result  of  British  efforts  to  enforce  an  effective  blockade  against 
Napoleon. 

Impressment  of  American  Sailors.  Worse  than  the  capture 
of  our  ships  was  the  impressment  of  American  sailors.  As  the 
war  with  France  dragged  on,  thousands  of  seamen  deserted  from 
the  British  navy  where  the  service  was  hard  and  the  wages  poor. 
Many  were  attracted  by  the  higher  pay  and  better  treatment  on 
board  American  ships.  The  deserting  sailors  were  furnished  with 
"  first  papers  "  of  American  citizenship,  and  these  papers  passed 
from  hand  to  hand  for  a  few  dollars.  Nearly  every  American 
ship  had  among  its  crew  "  Britishers "  who  had  recently 
obtained  such  papers.  Great  Britain  had  always  claimed  that 
no  subject  of  that  country  could,  by  his  own  action,  renounce 
his  allegiance.  So  the  British  navy  made  a  practice  of  searching 
American  merchantmen  at  sea ;  and  by  1812  several  thousand 
sailors  had  been  impressed  from  our  ships.  Many  of  these  were 
deserters  from  the  British  navy,  who  wished  to  become  natural- 
ized citizens  of  the  United  States ;  but  others  were  native- 
born  Americans,  seized  without  a  shadow  of  right. 

Napoleon's  Unfriendly  Actions.  France  treated  us  almost  as 
harshly  as  Great  Britain  ;  but  being  less  powerful  on  the  sea,  she 
impressed  fewer  of  our  sailors.  Nevertheless,  her  cruisers 
captured  five  hundred  American  ships  ;  and,  while  assuring  us  of 
his  friendship,  Napoleon  was  guilty  of  repeated  acts  of  treachery. 
At  one  time  he  offered  to  revoke  his  decrees  against  our  com- 
merce, if  we  should  compel  Great  Britain  "  to  respect  our 
rights."  This  proved  a  false  promise ;  for  when  American 
vessels  arrived  in  French  ports,  they  were  seized  and  their 
cargoes  confiscated.  Napoleon  said  he  did  this  out  of  friendship 
for  the  United  States.  Since  our  laws  forbade  American  ships 
to  sail,  he  pretended  to  believe  that  these  must  be  British  ships 
illegally  flying  the  American  flag. 

The  War  Party  in  Congress.  "  Weak  as  we  are,"  said  Henry 
Clay  of  Kentucky,  "  we  can  fight  England  and  France  both,  if 
necessary,  in  a  good  cause  —  the  cause  of  honor  and  independ- 
ence." Clay  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
leader  of  the  war  party.    He  spoke  the  sentiment  of  the  new 


THE    WAR   OF    1812  271 

West  —  ardent,  self-reliant,  aggressive.  Leadership  in  Congress 
had  now  passed  from  the  older  Revolutionary  statesmen  into 
the  hands  of  Clay,  Calhoun,  and  other  young  "  War  Hawks  " 
from  the  South  and  West.  New  England  and  the  Federalists 
were  strongly  opposed  to  a  war  that  would  destroy  their  com- 
merce ;  but  opposition  was  swept  away  before  the  eloquence 
of  Clay  and  the  logic  of  Calhoun.  "  Which  shall  we  do,"  asked 
John  C.  Calhoun  of  South  Carolina  —  "  abandon  or  defend  our 
commercial  and  maritime  rights,  and  the  personal  liberties  of 
our  citizens  in  exercising  them?  These  rights  are  attacked,  and 
war  is  the  only  means  of  redress." 

Comparative  Strength  of  the  Two  Nations.  War  with  Great 
Britain  seemed  like  a  contest  between  a  pygmy  and  a  giant. 
Our  regular  army  numbered  less  than  seven  thousand  men, 
scattered  along  the  frontier  posts.  The  chief  officers  were 
Revolutionary  veterans,  old  men  no  longer  competent  to  lead 
armies.  On  the  sea  we  appeared  even  weaker  than  on  land. 
Pur  little  navy  had  but  sixteen  vessels  to  oppose  the  thousand 
warships  belonging  to  the  mistress  of  the  seas.  The  population 
of  the  United  States  was  about  eight  million  people,  that  of 
Great  Britain  twenty  million.  Our  government's  revenue  was 
only  $10,000,000  a  year ;  the  British  revenue  was  seven  times 
as  large.  In  our  favor  was  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  was 
engaged  in  a  mighty  combat  with  Napoleon,  which  would 
prevent  her  from  sending  large  armies  to  America.  Another 
advantage  was  our  geographical  position.  To  attack  this  coun- 
try, Great  Britain  must  transport  her  troops  across  the  broad 
Atlantic. 

Drifting  toward  War.  The  ill-feeling  against  Great  Britain 
was  increased  in  1811  as  a  result  of  the  Indian  attacks  on  our 
western  frontier.  The  Shawnee  chief,  Tecumseh,  and  his 
brother,  the  "  Prophet,"  formed  a  plan  to  unite  all  the  Indian 
tribes  of  the  country  against  the  steady  advance  of  the  white 
settlers.  This  project  came  to  a  sudden  end  when  William 
Henry  Harrison,  governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  routed  Tecum- 
seh's  braves  at  Tippecanoe.  Harrison  reported  that  the  Indians 
had  been  armed  and  equipped  from  the  British  post  at  Maiden. 


272 


THE   RISE    OP  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 


Hull's  ro%e,  1812 

Harrison  jf  route,  1813     If 

_.__.  Dearborn's  route,  1812 


ia 


The  Campaigns  in  the  North,  the  West,  and  in  the  Vicinity  of  Washington 

Despite  the  victories  of  Harrison  and  Scott,  the  land  campaigns  did  not  gain 
their  ends.  Failure  sobered  the  people  and  silenced  the  partisan  charge  that  it 
was  a  war  of  the  Republican  party,  "  Mr.  Madison's  War."  The  life  of  the 
nation  was  again  at  stake. 

The  frontiersmen  firmly  believed  that  the  British  govern- 
ment was  behind  this  work,  although  this  was  not  really 
the  case. 

The  Declaration  of  War,  June  18,  1812.  President  Madison 
was  a  strong  friend  of  peace,  but  he  finally  yielded  to  the  pressure 
of  public  opinion  and  sent  a  war  message  to  Congress.  That 
body  passed  a  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain  on  June 
18,  1812.  Three  principal  grounds  were  given  for  this  action. 
(1)  Impressment,  a  real  and  substantial  grievance,  and  one 
that  justified  war.  (2)  The  seizure  of  American  ships  and  their 
cargoes,  and  the  attempt  to  enforce  paper  blockades ;  that 
is,  blockades  not  supported  by  an  effective  force.  This  was  a 
real  grievance,  but  the  actions  complained  of  were  not  aimed 
chiefly  at  us,  but  at  Napoleon.  (3)  The  British  government  was 
charged  with  having  encouraged  the  Indians  to  attack  our 
citizens  on  the  northwestern  frontier.  This  accusation  was  not 
true,  but  the  country  believed  it. 


THE   WAR   OF    1812  273 

Thus  the  War  of  1812  was  the  direct  outcome  of  Great 
Britain's  struggle  against  Napoleon.  France  and  Great  Britain 
were  striking  at  each  other's  commerce ;  ours  being  in  the  way 
suffered  the  usual  fate  of  the  innocent  bystander.  Many  liberal 
Whigs  in  England  had  urged  their  government  to  adopt  a 
conciliatory  policy  toward  the  United  States.  As  a  result  of 
their  attitude,  Great  Britain  agreed  to  withdraw  her  Orders 
in  Council  just  two  days  before  our  declaration  of  war.  Had 
there  been  a  cable  across  the  Atlantic  to  carry  the  news  of  this 
decision,  it  is  probable  that  Congress  would  not  have  declared 
war.  But  when  the  news  finally  reached  America,  our  govern- 
ment decided  to  continue  the  war  unless  Great  Britain  should 
also  renounce  her  practice  of  impressment. 

The  Attack  upon  Canada,  1812.  "  On  to  Canada,"  was  the 
slogan  of  the ' '  War  Hawks ' '  in  Congress.  Impetuous  leaders  like 
Henry  Clay  declared  that  the  conquest  of  Canada  would  be  an 
easy  task,  one  which  the  Kentucky  militia  alone  could  accom- 
plish. They  imagined  that  the  Canadian  people  would  welcome 
the  opportunity  to  throw  off  the  British  yoke.  Apparently  our 
War  Hawks  forgot  that  Upper  Canada  was  settled  largely  by 
Loyalist  refugees  from  the  United  States.  These  Loyalists  and 
their  children  had  not  forgotten  their  treatment  by  the  American 
patriots  during  the  Revolution.  They  were  not  likely  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  people  who  had  driven  them  from  their 
homes  and  confiscated  their  property. 

For  the  year  1812  a  triple  invasion  of  Canada  was  planned, 
from  Detroit,  Niagara,  and  Lake  Champlain.  The  three  in- 
vading armies  were  then  to  unite  for  the  capture  of  Montreal, 
and  later  of  Quebec.  This  ambitious  plan  ended  in  disastrous 
failure.  The  Detroit  expedition  was  commanded  by  General 
William  Hull,  an  old  Revolutionary  veteran  whose  best  fighting 
days  were  over.  Instead  of  capturing  Fort  Maiden,  General 
Hull  soon  found  himself  besieged  at  Detroit  by  a  force  of 
British  and  Indians.  Without  firing  a  gun,  this  timid  com- 
mander surrendered  Detroit  and  his  force  of  two  thousand 
men  to  the  smaller  British  army.  The  whole  of  Michigan 
Territory  passed  under  British  control  by  this  shameful  sur- 


a 


274  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

render,  and  our  northwestern  frontier  was  at  the  mercy  of 
the  Indians. 

Like  disaster  overtook  the  Niagara  expedition.  At  Queenston 
Heights,  a  few  miles  north  of  Niagara  Falls,  another  American 
general  was  beaten  back  with  the  loss  of  a  thousand  men.  The 
third  invading  column  went  northward  by  the  Hudson-Cham- 
plain  route,  but  the  militia  refused  to  cross  the  Canadian 
boundary.  So  the  entire  campaign  of  1812  ended  in  defeat  and 
disgrace.  Our  armies  were  led  by  incompetent  officers,  while 
the  troops  were  untrained,  poorly  equipped,  and  in  every  way 
unprepared  for  the  difficult  task  of  invasion.  Later  events  were 
to  prove  that  the  militia  could  not  even  be  relied  upon  to  defend 
our  national  capital,  much  less  to  invade  Canada. 

Perry's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie,  September,  1813.  To  retrieve 
Hull's  disgrace,  General  William  H.  Harrison,  the  hero  of  Tip- 
pecanoe, was  placed  in  command  of  the  American  forces  in  the 
Northwest.  Harrison  moved  northward  to  defend  the  Ohio 
frontier  and  recover  Detroit,  but  he  could  not  advance  against 
this  post  while  the  British  were  in  control  of  Lake  Erie.  One 
day  in  September,  1813,  General  Harrison  received  a  message 
which  thrilled  him  with  delight.  It  read :  "  We  have  met  the 
enemy,  and  they  are  ours.  Two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner, 
and  one  sloop."  The  message  was  sent  by  Oliver  Hazard  Perry  ; 
it  announced  his  victory  over  the  British  fleet  at  the  battle  of 
Lake  Erie.  Perry  had  ten  ships  under  his  command,  five  of 
which  he  had  built  from  green  timber  cut  from  the  banks  of 
Lake  Erie.  On  the  morning  of  September  10,  his  fleet  sailed  out 
from  Put-in-Bay  to  meet  the  British  squadron.  Captain  Barclay, 
who  had  fought  under  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,  was  his  adversary. 

The  battle  raged  fiercely  for  three  hours.  Leading  the  Ameri- 
can line,  Perry's  flagship,  the  Lawrence,  was  at  last  cut  to  pieces 
by  the  fire  from  the  British  ships.  Of  one  hundred  and  three 
men  on  board,  all  but  twenty  were  shot  down.  Instead  of 
striking  his  flag,  Perry  leaped  into  a  rowboat,  and  with  his 
young  brother  and  a  few  seamen,  started  for  the  Niagara.  Again 
and  again  the  Detroit  fired  at  this  frail  target,  but  the  little 
party  reached  the  Niagara's  decks  without  injury.    Above  his 


THE    WAR   OF    1812 


275 


new  flagship  Perry  rehoisted  the  blue  flag  which  bore  Lawrence's 
dying  words,  "  Don't  Give  up  the  Ship."  He  then  gave  the 
signal  for  his  squadron  to  close  in,  and  the  broadsides  from  the 
American  guns  turned  defeat  into  victory.  By  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  all  six  of  the  British  ships  had  struck  their 
colors.  Had  it  not  been  for  Perry's  victory,  the  Northwest 
Territory  might  have  remained  a  British  prize  of  war. 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Commodore  Perry  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie 

Perry  being  rowed  from  the  Lawrence  to  the  Niagara.     In  his  new  flagship  he 
broke  the  enemy's  line,  and  won  a  decisive  victory. 


Fighting  along  the  Canadian  Frontier,  1813-1814.  Perry's 
victory  forced  the  British  troops  to  abandon  Detroit  and  retreat 
into  Canada.  They  were  closely  pursued  by  Harrison,  who 
routed  Proctor's  army  in  the  Battle  of  the  Thames  (1813). 
Tecumseh,  who  had  proven  such  a  valuable  British  ally,  was 
killed,  while  many  of  Proctor's  men  were  taken  prisoners.  This 
decisive  victory  put  an  end  to  the  Indian  Confederacy  in  the 
Northwest ;  it  also  won  back  Detroit  and  Michigan  Territory, 


276  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

which  Hull  had  lost.  Eastern  Canada  was  again  invaded  during 
this  year,  but  with  little  success.  General  Dearborn  succeeded 
in  capturing  York  (now  Toronto),  and  some  of  his  men,  acting 
without  orders,  set  fire  to  Parliament  House.  Late  in  the 
autumn,  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  capture  Montreal. 
The  British  took  the  offensive  as  winter  came  on  ;  they  captured 
Fort  Niagara,  and  laid  waste  the  country  around  Buffalo. 

New  generals  were  placed  in  command  of  the  American 
armies  in  1814,  the  most  successful  of  whom  were  Jacob  Brown 
and  Winfield  Scott.  The  campaign  along  the  Niagara  frontier 
was  continued,  and  in  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  General  Scott 
won  a  signal  victory.  Another  fierce  battle  took  place  at  Lundy's 
Lane  three  weeks  later.  In  spite  of  the  individual  bravery  of 
the  American  troops,  it  proved  impossible  for  our  armies  to 
conquer  Canada.  The  Canadian  people  rose  against  the  invader  ; 
while  Great  Britain,  at  last  victor  over  Napoleon,  was  able  to 
send  large  reinforcements  to  America. 

The  War  on  the  Ocean.  Englishmen  were  justly  proud  of 
their  navy,  which  for  centuries  had  reigned  supreme  on  the 
ocean.  From  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  to  Nelson's 
victory  at  Trafalgar,  the  fleets  of  Great  Britain  had  never  failed 
her  in  the  hour  of  need.  In  1812  the  thousand  warships  flying 
the  British  flag  were  more  than  a  match  for  the  combined 
navies  of  the  world.  Yet  it  was  on  the  sea,  the  domain  of  her 
boasted  strength,  that  Great  Britain  met  her  serious  defeats  in 
this  war.  When  hostilities  began,  Englishmen  laughed  at  our 
"  few  fir-built  frigates."  It  was  never  dreamed  that  these 
despised  ships  would  break  the  spell  of  British  naval  power, 
and  forever  settle  the  question  of  search  and  impressment. 

Famous  Sea  Duels.  Of  the  twelve  single-ship  duels  fought 
during  the  war,  eight  were  won  by  American  ships,  two  were 
British  victories,  and  in  two  the  honors  were  even.  Our  first 
great  naval  victory  was  won  by  Captain  Isaac  Hull  of  the 
Constitution,  which  met  the  British  frigate  Guerriere  off  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  (August,  1812).  Not  until  the  two  ships  were 
within  short  pistol  range  did  Hull  give  the  command,  "  Now, 
boys,  pour  it  into  them !  "    Then  broadside  after  broadside  was 


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278  THE    RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 

delivered  with  terrific  effect.  Within  half  an  hour  the  British 
ship  lay  a  helpless  hulk,  rolling  her  deck  guns  in  the  heavy  sea. 

This  splendid  victory  aroused  wild  enthusiasm  throughout 
America.  England  was  stunned  at  the  news,  but  worse  was  to 
follow.  In  October,  1812,  the  American  sloop  Wasp  defeated  the 
British  Frolic.  One  week  later,  Captain  Decatur,  in  command 
of  the  frigate  United  States,  captured  the  Macedonian  off  the 
Madeira  Islands,  and  brought  his  prize  into  Newport  harbor. 
Next  the  Constitution,  now  fondly  called  "  Old  Ironsides," 
destroyed  the  frigate  Java  off  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The  fifth 
American  victory  was  won  when  the  sloop  Hornet  sank  the  Pea- 
cock off  the  coast  of  South  America.  Meantime,  the  Essex  made 
a  wonderful  seventeen-months'  cruise  in  the  Pacific  capturing 
many  prizes,  and  destroying  British  commerce  in  that  part  of 
the  world. 

What  Great  Britain  Thought  of  Our  Naval  Victories.  Never 
since  Britain  had  ships  had  she  suffered  such  defeats.  The  loss  of 
five  war  vessels  was  of  small  moment ;  but  the  loss  of  her  naval 
prestige  was  a  matter  of  vital  concern.  In  vain  the  London 
papers  tried  to  explain  away  these  defeats  by  saying  that  the 
American  vessels  carried  more  men  and  threw  heavier  broad- 
sides. The  fact  was  that  the  men  behind  the  guns  on  the  Ameri- 
can ships  were  too  much  for  their  adversaries.  Moreover, 
Yankee  ingenuity  had  invented  a  system  of  sights  upon  naval 
artillery  which  made  the  aim  of  the  American  guns  more  ac- 
curate than  that  of  the  British.  London  was  wild  with  joy  when 
the  long  series  of  defeats  was  at  last  broken  by  a  victory.  This 
was  won  by  the  British  frigate  Shannon,  which  captured  the 
ill-fated  Chesapeake.  In  a  bloody  engagement  that  lasted  only 
fifteen  minutes,  Captain  Lawrence,  the  brave  commander  of  the 
Chesapeake,  fell  mortally  wounded.  As  he  was  being  carried 
below,  his  last  words  were,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship!  Blow  her 
up  !  "  —  a  battle  cry  never  forgotten  in  the  American  navy. 

Our  Privateers  Harass  Great  Britain's  Commerce.  As  the 
war  wore  on,  British  fleets  bottled  up  most  of  our  frigates  in 
harbors  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Not  so  with  the  privateers. 
Throughout  the  war,  these  bold,  swift-sailing  vessels  swarmed 


THE    WAR   OF    1812  279 

on  every  sea,  preying  upon  British  commerce.  They  invaded 
even  the  English  Channel  and  the  Irish  Sea.  One  Captain  Boyle, 
who  had  thirty  prizes  to  his  credit,  issued  a  burlesque  proclama- 
tion declaring  the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade.  So  many 
merchant  ships  were  captured  that  no  insurance  could  be  had  for 
a  cargo  to  be  carried  from  England  to  Ireland.  The  British 
navy  was  humiliated  ;  the  more  so  that  all  this  damage  was  done 
by  "  a  few  petty  fly-by-nights,"  as  the  London  Chronicle  said. 
In  the  first  six  months  of  the  war,  our  privateers  captured  more 
ships  than  Great  Britain  had  lost  to  all  the  rest  of  the  world  in 
twenty  years. 

Great  Britain  Plans  a  Triple  Attack,  1814.  After  the  defeat 
of  Napoleon  at  Leipsic,  Great  Britain  was  able  to  send  to 
America  thousands  of  Wellington's  veterans,  men  who  boasted 
that  they  had  not  slept  under  a  roof  for  seven  years.  She  planned 
to  crush  the  United  States  by  a  threefold  attack.  One  army 
was  to  march  southward  from  Canada,  along  the  route  which 
Burgoyne  had  taken  thirty-seven  years  before ;  another  army 
aided  by  the  fleet  was  to  attack  Washington  and  Baltimore; 
while  a  third  force  was  to  capture  New  Orleans,  and  secure 
control  of  the  Mississippi.  The  first  part  of  this  program  was 
carried  out  in  September,  1814,  when  New  York  was  invaded 
along  Burgoyne's  old  route  by  ten  thousand  British  troops, 
supported  by  a  fleet  on  Lake  Champlain.  Young  Lieutenant 
Macdonough  with  a  smaller  American  fleet  met  the  British 
ships  off  Plattsburg,  and  won  a  brilliant  victory.  After  an 
indecisive  land  battle  near  the  scene  of  the  naval  action,  the 
invading  army  retreated  to  Canada. 

The  British  Capture  Washington  and  Attack  Baltimore.  The 
British  were  more  successful  in  their  invasion  along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  entire  coast  was  blockaded  by  warships, 
Maine  was  invaded,  and  the  enemy's  fleet  finally  appeared  in 
Chesapeake  Bay  for  an  attack  upon  Washington  and  Baltimore. 
Washington  was  then  a  city  of  eight  thousand  inhabitants, 
without  fortifications  of  any  kind.  President  Madison  called 
for  militia  to  defend  the  city,  but  the  American  forces  were 
easily  routed  at  Bladensburg,  a  few  miles  away.    The  British 


280  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

army  then  advanced  upon  Washington  (August  24,  1814). 
The  federal  officials  fled  in  a  panic,  but  Mrs.  Madison  did  not 
leave  the  White  House  until  she  had  removed  to  a  place  of 
safety  the  Stuart  portrait  of  Washington,  together  with  many 
important  government  papers.  It  was  fortunate  that  she  did  so  ; 
for  the  British  army  plundered  and  burned  the  White  House, 
as  well  as  the  Capitol  and  other  public  buildings.  The  British 
claimed  that  their  action  was  justified  on  account  of  the  burning 
of  York  (now  Toronto)  by  the  Americans. 

Three  weeks  later  came  the  attack  on  Baltimore.  Five  thou- 
sand veteran  troops  were  to  make  an  assault  by  land,  while 
the  British  fleet  bombarded  Fort  McHenry  which  guarded  the 
harbor.  All  day  and  far  into  the  night  the  cannonade  continued. 
Francis  Scott  Key,  a  citizen  of  Baltimore,  was  held  on  board  a 
British  vessel  during  the  attack.  Anxiously  he  watched  the 
bombardment  during  the  evening,  and  still  more  anxiously  he 
awaited  "the  dawn's  early  light."  The  sight  of  the  stars  and 
stripes  still  waving  above  the  fort  next  morning  was  his  inspira- 
tion for  our  national  hymn,  "  The  Star  Spangled  Banner." 
Fort  McHenry  could  not  be  taken,  so  the  invading  army 
retreated  to  the  shore  and  embarked  on  the  transports.  A 
few  days  later  the  fleet  withdrew  from  the  harbor,  and  the  siege 
of  Baltimore  was  over. 

The  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  January  8,  1815.  The  third  part 
of  the  British  plan  was  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and  with  it, 
the  control  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  British  anticipated  an 
easy  victory,  for  they  had  a  fleet  of  fifty  vessels  and  an  army  of 
sixteen  thousand  veterans.  The  defense  of  the  city  was  in  the 
hands  of  Andrew  Jackson,  who  had  just  finished  a  brilliant 
campaign  against  the  Creek  Indians.  Jackson  had  an  army  of 
six  thousand  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  riflemen.  He  threw  up 
a  long  line  of  breastworks  and  coolly  awaited  the  British  assault. 
Against  these  defenses  the  British  general,  Sir  Edward  Paken- 
ham,  hurled  five  thousand  soldiers.  Charging  over  a  flat,  open 
country,  they  were  met  by  a  terrific  fire  from  the  best  marksmen 
in  America.  As  one  red  line  was  cut  down,  another  advanced  to 
take  its  place ;  but  at  last  even  Wellington's  veterans  could  do  no 


THE   WAR  OF   1812 


281 


more.  This  crushing  defeat  cost  the  British  two  thousand  men, 
including  the  brave  Pakenham ;  Jackson's  loss  was  only  eight 
men  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  It  was  a  splendid  victory, 
the  greatest  won  by  either  side  during  the  war.  New  Orleans 
made  Andrew  Jackson  a  national  hero. 

The  Treaty  of  Ghent.  Had  there  been  a  cable  across  the 
Atlantic  in  1815,  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  would  not  have  been 
fought.  Two  weeks  be- 
fore Jackson's  brilliant 
victory,  commissioners 
from  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  had 
signed  a  peace  treaty  at 
Ghent  (December  24, 
1814).  Oddly  enough, 
the  treaty  was  silent 
about  the  very  things 
that  had  caused  the  war. 
There  was  not  a  word 
about  impressment,  the 
practice  of  search,  or 
the  rights  of  neutrals.  Campaigns  in  the  Southwest 

The  treaty  simply  provided  for  peace,  and  for  the  surrender  by 
each  nation  of  all  conquered  territory. 

Results  of  the  War.  (1)  Commercial  freedom  secured.  Al- 
though the  treaty  said  nothing  about  the  attacks  on  our  com- 
merce, Great  Britain  did  not  again  attempt  to  search  our  ships, 
or  to  impress  our  sailors.  From  the  British  point  of  view,  the 
close  of  the  long  struggle  against  Napoleon  made  search  and 
impressment  no  longer  necessary. 

(2)  The  war  created  a  strong  national  feeling.  Our  political 
parties  no  longer  took  sides,  the  Republicans  with  France, 
and  the  Federalists  with  Great  Britain.  All  parties  and  sections 
felt  a  common  pride  in  our  navy  and  in  the  soldiers  who  had 
made  such  a  gallant  stand  at  New  Orleans. 

(3)  New  domestic  problems  arise.  With  the  growth  of  this 
national  feeling,  Americans  no  longer  looked  anxiously  across 


Evening  Gazette  Office, 

llmton,  Mondng.  if),  .).:■ 

The  tiilluwitif  most  hifrhty  important  h.tndbill  hs*  just  b-.-rn  issued  from  the  Ckntisci.  press.      V 

i  duty  thai  we  vwe  our  Friends  and  tit*  Public  to  assist  in  th«  prompt  spread  of  the  «..U>fwus  News. 


Treaty  of  PEACE  signed  and  arrived. 

CzsriSKi.   OJflrr.  }-,h.  IS.  1RI5.  S  a\-lu<-k  h>  the  «ior»i»f 

WK  have  this  instant  received  in  Thirty -two  hours  from  New-York  the  following 

Great  and  Happy  News  ! 

FOR  THE  PUBLIC. 

To  Bf.xja.mix  Rcssku..  Esq.  C'evtitiel-fljjlep,  Boston. 

«VVa-i'o.-i,  b'A>.  u.  IKlo — Suiurdiirj  Evening,  10  o1 cluck: 

St!f~~ 
I  HASTEN  to  acquaint  yon.  for  fiie  information   of  the  Public  of  the  arrival 
here  this  afternoon  of  H.  Br.  M.  shmp  of  war  Favorite,  in  which  has  come  pas- 
senger Mr.  Cauhoi.i.,  Anv'ricaa  Messenger,  having  in  his  possesion 

A  Treaty  of  Peace 

Between  this  Country. and  Great-Britain,  signed  on  the  20fh  Becembcr  last. 

Mr.  Baker  also  is  on  hoard,  a-  Agent  for  (he  British  Government,  the  same 
who  was  formerly  Charge  des  Affairs  here. 

Mr.  Carroll  readied  town  al  eight  o'clock  litis  evening,  lie  shewed  to  a  friend 
of  mine,  who  is  acquainted  with  him.  the  parquet  containing  the  Treaty,  and  a 
London  newspaper  of  the  last  date  of  December,  announcing  the  signing  of  the 
Treaty. 

It  depends,  however,  as  my  friend  observed,  upon  the  act  of  the  President  to 
suspend  hostilities  on  this  side. 

The' gentleman  left  London  the  2d  Jan.  The  Trausit  had  sailed  previously 
from  a  port  on  the  Continent. 

This  city  is  in  a  perfect  uproar  of  joy,  shouts,  illuminations,  &c.  &c 

I  hare  undertaken  to  send  yon  this  by  Express — the  rider  engaging  to  deliver 
it  by  Eight  o'clock  on  Monday  morning.  The  expense  will  be  225  dollars  : — if 
you  can  collect  go  much  to  indemnify  me  J  iritl  thank  you.  to  do  so. 

lam  with  respect.  Sir.  your  obedient  scrrant, 

'jihy.lTH.-LY  GOODHUE. 


C7  We  most  hfsrtilv  felicitate  our  Country  go  thi«  auspicious  rnvre,  which  may  be,  refied  oa  as  wholly 


Handbill  Announcing  the  Treaty  of  Ghent 

Express  riders  carried  similar  bills  to  the  important  cities  and  towns  of  the 
country.  In  New  York,  Jackson's  victory  at  New  Orleans  and  the  treaty  of 
peace  were  celebrated  at  the  same  time.  A  transparency  on  the  City  Hall 
suggestive  of  the  two  events  showed  the  American  eagle  bearing  in  one  talon 
the  thunderbolts  of  war,  and  in  the  other  the  olive  branch  of  peace. 


282 


THE    WAR   OF    1812  283 

the  sea,  lest  the  coming  ship  should  bear  unfriendly  tidings  from 
Europe.  Men  turned  their  eyes  toward  the  great  West  and  the 
frontier,  with  its  opportunities  for  the  upbuilding  of  a  mighty 
nation.  The  old  questions  of  neutral  rights,  impressment,  and 
embargo,  passed  away.  The  new  problems  related  to  domestic 
affairs,  —  to  internal  improvements,  public  lands,  the  tariff, 
the  banking  system,  and  the  extension  of  slavery. 

(4)  The  war  encouraged  the  growth  of  American  manufactures. 
With  our  supply  of  European  goods  cut  off,  Americans  engaged 
in  manufacturing  on  a  larger  scale  than  ever  before.  The  Em- 
bargo measure,  the  Non-Intercourse  Act,  and  then  the  war 
itself,  served  to  promote  domestic  manufactures,  acting  like  a 
protective  duty.  When  peace  was  declared,  British  merchants 
sent  over  immense  quantities  of  goods,  which  were  sold  at  lower 
prices  than  the  American  products.  Our  manufacturers  at  once 
appealed  to  Congress  for  a  protective  tariff.  They  declared  that 
domestic  manufactures  must  be  protected  from  the  competition 
of  foreign-made  goods  produced  by  cheaper  labor.  So  Congress 
passed  a  protective  tariff  law  in  1816,  increasing  the  import 
duties  on  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  leather,  hats,  paper,  sugar, 
and  salt. 

(5)  Opposition  to  the  war  led  to  the  downfall  of  the  Federalist 
party.  New  England  opposed  the  war  from  the  beginning, 
realizing  that  it  would  destroy  her  commerce.  The  Federalist 
leaders  of  that  section  had  no  confidence  in  the  Republicans, 
and  were  unsparing  in  their  criticism  of  "  Mr.  Madison's  War." 
When  the  President  first  called  for  militia,  the  governors  of 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island  refused  to  raise 
troops  to  serve  outside  their  states.  New  England  also  withheld 
her  financial  support :  the  South  and  the  West  had  made  the 
war  —  let  them  pay  for  it !  Finally,  in  December,  1814,  delegates 
from  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island  assembled 
at  Hartford.  They  met  to  adopt  measures  to  protect  their 
rights,  so  they  said  ;  but  the  country  believed  that  the  real  object 
of  their  secret  sessions  was  to  plan  disunion.  This  convention 
sounded  the  death  knell  of  the  Federalist  party,  for  the  people 
never  forgave  its  disloyal  opposition  to  the  War  of  1812. 


-4 


284  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

Time  Vindicates  Our  Position  Concerning  Neutral  Rights. 
Time  was  to  vindicate  America's  position  concerning  neutral 
rights,  the  principles  for  which  we  waged  the  War  of  1812.  Only 
a  few  years  later,  the  highest  judicial  authority  in  England  gave 
°y  his  opinion  that  the  British  Orders  in  Council  were  not  only 
unjust  to  neutrals,  but  were  also  contrary  to  British  law  and  to 
the  law  of  nations.  In  1856,  Great  Britain,  together  with  France 
and  other  European  powers,  agreed  to  abide  by  certain  impor- 
tant rules  governing  the  conduct  of  nations  in  time  of  war.  This 
Declaration  of  Paris,  as  it  was  called,  provided  that :  (1)  neu- 
tral ships  are  not  liable  to  seizure  unless  carrying  contraband 
of  war ;  (2)  blockades,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective, 
that  is,  maintained  by  a  force  strong  enough  to  prevent  access 
to  the  enemy's  coast.  Great  Britain  made  no  attempt  to  con- 
tinue the  practice  of  search  and  impressment  after  1815  ;  and  in 
1858  her  Foreign  Secretary,  Lord  Malmesbury,  frankly  stated 
that  "  we  have  no  legal  claim  to  the  right  of  visit  and  search 
which  has  hitherto  been  assumed." 

The  Rush-Bagot  Agreement,  1817.  The  War  of  1812  had 
led  to  the  construction  on  the  Great  Lakes  of  fleets  of  small 
but  efficient  warships.  After  the  treaty  of  peace,  the  rivals 
continued  to  determine  which  country  was  to  have  naval 
supremacy  on  the  lakes.  At  Kingston  on  the  Canadian  side, 
three  ships-of-t he-line  were  being  built,  each  mounting  74  guns  ; 
while  across  the  lake  at  Sackett's  Harbor  two  rival  74's  were  on 
the  stocks.  This  competition  in  the  building  of  warships  was 
likely  to  prove  a  constant  menace  to  cordial  relations  between 
the  United  States  and  its  neighbor.  Accordingly,  a  wiser  course 
was  adopted.  Great  Britain  sent  Charles  Bagot  to  represent 
her  at  Washington,  with  positive  instructions  to  promote 
cordial  relations  with  the  United  States.  In  1817,  the  two 
governments  signed  the  Rush-Bagot  agreement,  by  which  they 
bound  themselves  to  maintain  no  warships  on  the  lakes.  To 
guard  against  smugglers,  each  government  was  permitted  to 
have  four  small  vessels  of  not  over  one  hundred  tons,  armed 
with  a  single  cannon ;  but  all  warships  on  the  lakes  were  to 
be  dismantled,  and  no  others  were  to  be  built.     In  accordance 


THE    WAR   OF    1812  285 

with  this  agreement,  each  country  sold  or  scuttled  more  than 
a  dozen  vessels. 

This  agreement  for  naval  disarmament  on  the  lakes  was  one 
of  the  most  important  treaties  in  our  history.  The  absence  of 
rival  navies  on  our  northern  frontier  meant  that  each  nation 


The  Rotunda,  The  University  of  Virginia 

Although  Jefferson  did  not  live  to  see  his  system  of  common  schools  for 
Virginia  worked  out,  he  established  a  university,  which  was  opened  in  1825. 
Jefferson  drew  up  the  plans  for  the  group  of  buildings,  adapting  them  from  the 
baths  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  Diocletian  and  Caracalla,  the  Temple  of  Fortuna 
Virilis,  and  the  central  figure  of  the  group,  the  Rotunda,  from  the  Pantheon. 

had  confidence  in  the  good  faith  of  its  neighbor.  It  meant  that 
throughout  the  four  thousand  miles  along  which  our  border 
touches  that  of  Canada,  there  was  to  be  neither  battleship  nor 
fortress  nor  sentinel.  That  far-flung,  unguarded  frontier  was 
the  outward  and  visible  sign  that,  in  spite  of  occasional  differ- 
ences and  disputes,  each  nation  trusted  the  other.  One 
hundred  years  of  unbroken  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  have  since  shown  how  fully  that  mutual  trust 
is  justified. 


286  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Babcock,  K.  C,  The  Rise  of  American  Nationality  (American  Nation 
Series),  chs.  V-XI. 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XV. 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  chs.  XVII- 
XIX. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XIX. 

Johnston,  A.,   Union  and  Democracy,  chs.  XI- XIII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :    Treaty  of  Ghent,  pp.  289-293. 

Updyke,  F.  A.,  The  Diplomacy  of  the  War  of  1812,  chs.  I,  VIII,  IX, 
X,  XI. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union,  pp.  199-222. 

Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  V. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  XVI- XVII. 

Wright,  W.  E.,  American  Progress,  ch.  VII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Why  the  War  Was  Fought.  Barstow,  C.  D.,  A  New  Nation, 
pp.  43-46  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  V,  pp.  3-11  ;  Griffis, 
W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest,  ch.  XL 

2.  Naval  Campaigns  of  the  War.  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing, 
M.  F.,  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  ch.  XIII  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American 
History,  V,  pp.  11-41,  79-89  ;  Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Con- 
quest, ch.  XI. 


CHAPTER   XXII 


NEW    TOOLS    AND    NEW    METHODS    OF    PRODUCTION 

The  Industrial  Revolution,  1760-1800.  The  eighteenth 
century  is  remarkable  for  three  great  revolutions,  each  of  which 
had  a  vast  influence  upon  the  world's  history.  The  first  of  these 
was  a  political  revolution,  the  second  a  social  revolution,  and  the 
third  an  industrial  revolution.  In  the  first,  the  United  States 
became  independent  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  second,  the 
French  people  swept  away  the  ancient  privileges  of  kings  and 
nobles.  In  the  third, 
wonderful  mechani- 
cal inventions  and 
discoveries,  followed 
by  the  introduction 
of  the  factory  sys- 
tem, brought  about 
an  industrial  revolu- 
tion. Each  of  these 
revolutions  had  a  far- 
reaching  influence ; 
and,  while  the  Eng- 
lish Industrial  Revo- 
lution   was    a   quiet 

and  bloodless  affair,  its  permanent  results  were  just  as  important 
as  the  American  or  the  French  Revolutions,  for  it  modified  the 
industrial  system  of  the  whole  world. 

Household  Methods  of  Spinning  and  Weaving.  The  English 
Industrial  Revolution  began  about  the  year  1760  with  a  wonder- 
ful series  of  inventions  in  the  textile  industries.  At  this  time, 
England's  principal  industry  was  cloth-making,  carried  on  by 
the  methods  that  had  been  followed  for  centuries.  The  cotton 
and  woolen  cloth  which  British  ships  carried  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  was  still  carded,  spun,  and  woven  in  the  cottages  of 

287 


Courtesy  of  the  Draper  Corporation. 

The  Hand  Loom 


288  THE    RISE   OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

domestic  weavers.  This  work  was  done  by  means  of  the  hand 
card,  the  spinning  wheel,  and  the  cumbersome  old-fashioned 
loom.  The  weaving  was  usually  done  by  the  father  of  the  fam- 
ily, aided  by  his  grown  sons  or  by  journeymen ;  while  the  spin- 
ning was  carried  on  by  the  women  and  younger  children.  There 
was  a  serious  drawback  to  this  method  of  production ;  for  one 
weaver  could  easily  use  up  the  product  of  five  or  six  spinners. 

The  Spinning  Jenny  and  the  Power  Loom.  One  day  a  master 
weaver  named  James  Hargreaves  hit  upon  the  idea  of  using  a 
wheel  to  cause  a  number  of  spindles  to  turn,  so  as  to  spin  several 
threads  at  once.  With  the  help  of  a  neighboring  mechanic,  he 
constructed  a  crude  machine  named  in  honor  of  his  wife  the 
"  spinning  jenny,"  which  could  spin  eight  threads  at  the  same 
time  (1767).  Hargreaves  could  not  keep  his  secret  long,  and 
soon  jennies  spinning  twenty  or  thirty  threads  were  in  use.  A 
few  years  later,  Richard  Arkwright  invented  a  new  machine  that 
could  spin  much  faster  than  even  the  spinning  jenny.  Other 
improvements  followed,  and  finally  the  good  points  of  the  ear- 
lier machines  were  combined  in  the  famous  mule  spinner 
invented  by  Samuel  Crompton,  which  could  spin  several  thou- 
sand threads  at  once.  Before  the  invention  of  the  spinning 
machines,  weavers  could  not  get  enough  yarn  to  supply  their 
looms.  Now  they  could  not  keep  up  with  the  supply  of  yarn  spun 
by  the  machines,  for  there  had  been  no  improvement  in  the  old 
hand  loom.  This  condition  was  changed  in  1784,  when  an  English 
clergyman,  Dr.  Edward  Cartwright,  invented  the  power  loom. 

The  Steam  Engine.  The  first  spinning  jennies  could  be  used 
in  the  cottage  of  the  weaver,  but  the  later  machines  were  so  large 
and  required  so  much  power  that  human  strength  would  not 
answer.  Horses  were  used  to  some  extent,  then  water  power, 
and  special  buildings  were  put  up  along  streams  where  water 
power  was  available.  The  next  step  was  the  application  of 
steam,  made  possible  by  the  inventive  genius  of  James  Watt. 
He  began  the  manufacture  of  steam  engines  in  1781,  and  a  few 
years  later  the  first  steam  engine  was  used  for  power  in  a 
cotton  mill.  About  this  time  Cartwright,  who  had  been  using 
an  ox  to  drive  his  power  loom,  decided  to  use  one  of  Watt's 


NEW  TOOLS  AND  NEW  METHODS  OF  PRODUCTION     289 

engines  instead.  By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  steam 
was  rapidly  displacing  water  power  as  a  motive  force. 

The  Factory  System  in  England.  The  new  machinery  spelled 
the  doom  of  cottage  weaving,  for  the  weavers  did  not  have  the 
capital  to  buy  machines,  nor  were  their  cottages  large  enough  to 
hold  them.  So  men  who  could  furnish  the  capital  bought  the 
machines,  built  mills  or  factories,  and  hired  spinners  and 
weavers  to  carry  on  the  work  of  production.  Some  weavers  tried 
to  continue  making  cloth  in  their  homes  by  the  old  methods, 
but  they  found  it  impossible  to  compete  with  machine  produc- 
tion. Excited  and  desperate,  they  would  sometimes  invade  the 
factories  and  break  up  the  machines  that  were  taking  away  their 
livelihood.  No  wonder  the  poor  weavers  were  bewildered  over 
the  new  factory  system,  for  it  meant  a  complete  change  in  the 
methods  of  production  that  had  existed  for  ages.  It  meant  that 
in  the  future  only  men  with  considerable  capital  could  under- 
take the  business  of  manufacturing ;  it  meant  that  production 
must  be  carried  on  by  large  groups  of  laborers,  working  regular 
hours  under  the  direction  of  the  employer  or  his  foreman ;  it 
meant  the  end  of  the  old  familiar  relations  between  the  master 
and  the  journeymen  working  by  his  side ;  it  meant  the  rise  of 
great  factory  towns,  and  such  a  growth  of  manufactures  as  had 
never  been  dreamed  of.  The  factory  system  was  first  introduced 
in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  but  the  new  machinery  was 
soon  employed  in  the  woolen  industry,  then  in  other  textile  lines, 
and  finally  in  almost  every  form  of  production. 

The  Factory  System  in  the  United  States.  The  Industrial 
Revolution  was  not  confined  to  England.  Americans  were  quick 
to  adopt  the  new  tools  and  new  methods  of  production.  The 
British  Parliament  passed  laws  forbidding  any  one  to  export 
the  new  machines,  or  plans  or  models  of  them ;  but  in  spite  of 
this  prohibition,  a  spinning  jenny  was  at  work  in  Philadelphia 
in  the  year  1775.  Soon  afterwards  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
offered  a  bounty  for  the  invention  of  carding  and ,  spinning 
machines ;  and  in  1781  a  cotton  mill  was  built  at  Beverly, 
Massachusetts,  which  made  use  of  the  principles  of  Arkwright's 
invention. 


290 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


It  remained  for  Samuel  Slater,  the  "  father  of  American  manu- 
factures," to  give  America  the  full  benefit  of  the  English  inven- 
tions. After  serving  his  apprenticeship  in  a  cotton  mill,  Slater 
became  a  general  overseer  in  an  English  factory  that  produced 
cotton  machinery.  One  day  he  picked  up  an  American  news- 
paper, and  read  of  the  bounties  being  offered  in  the  United  States 
for  the  introduction  of  machinery.  Slater  knew  that  it  was 
against  the  law  to  take  the  new  inventions  out  of  England  ;  but  he 
perfected  his  knowledge  of  cotton  machinery  so  thoroughly  that 
he  could  construct  it  from  memory.     He  then  emigrated  to  the 

United  States,  and  at  Paw- 
tucket,  Rhode  Island,  built  a 
mill  equipped  with  seventy- 
two  spindles  operating  on 
the  Arkwright  plan  (1790). 
This  year  may  therefore  be 
regarded  as  the  year  of  the 
birth  of  the  factory  system 
in  the  United  States.  It 
was  still  difficult  to  get  the 
new  machinery,  and  only 
four  mills  were  built  in  the 
United  States  during  the 
next  fifteen  years. 

Whitney's  Cotton  Gin. 
In  1793  came  a  great  Ameri- 
can invention  which  increased  the  growth  of  the  factory  system 
all  over  the  world.  This  was  the  cotton  gin,  the  invention  of  Eli 
Whitney,  a  native  of  Massachusetts  who  was  teaching  school  in 
Georgia.  The  new  methods  of  spinning  and  weaving  yarn  had 
greatly  increased  the  demand  for  raw  cotton.  Cotton  could  be 
raised  easily,  but  it  was  difficult  to  separate  the  fiber  of  the  plant 
from  the  seed.  Even  a  quick  hand  could  not  clean  more  than 
five  or  six  pounds  of  cotton  in  a  day.  Whitney's  gin  separated 
the  seed  from  the  cotton  by  means  of  cylinders  covered  with 
saw  teeth.  With  his  machine,  a  slave  could  easily  clean  one 
thousand  pounds  of  cotton  in  a  day.  The  result  of  the  invention 


Eli  Whitney's  Cotton  Gin 

From  a  negative  in  the  possession  of  the 

National  Museum,  Washington. 


NEW  TOOLS  AND  NEW  METHODS  OF  PRODUCTION     291 


was  a  great  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton  throughout  the 
South,  and  a  sudden  rise  in  the  value  of  slave  labor.  The  pro- 
duction of  cotton,  which  amounted  to  two  million  pounds  in 
1791,  was  forty-eight  million  pounds  in  1801.  Before  Whitney's 
invention,  several  southern  states  were  planning  to  follow  the 
example  of  the  North,  and  emancipate  their  slaves.  Now 
cotton  became  the  great  southern  staple,  slave  labor  took  on 
a  new  value,  and  there  was  no  more  talk  of  emancipation  at 
the  South. 

The  Power  Loom 
and  the  First  Com- 
plete Factory,  1814. 
The  Long  Embargo, 
together  with  the 
War  of  1812,  greatly 
stimulated  the 
growth  of  American 
manufactures.  Cut 
off  from  England, 
the  United  States 
was  thrown  upon  its 
own  resources,  and 
compelled  to  manu- 
facture many  articles  formerly  imported.  Cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  glass,  iron,  hardware,  and  paper  were  produced  in  large 
quantities,  so  that  our  country  was  no  longer  dependent  upon 
Europe  for  these  necessaries.  Up  to  this  time,  the  United  States 
had  not  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  power  loom  invented  in  Eng- 
land many  years  before.  Just  before  the  war  began,  Francis  C. 
Lowell  of  Boston  visited  the  cotton  factories  of  England,  and 
learned  all  that  he  could  about  the  power  loom.  Upon  his 
return  he  built  a  cotton  factory  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts, 
and  equipped  it  with  seventeen  hundred  spindles  operated  by 
water  power,  besides  a  power  loom  built  from  the  knowledge 
he  had  gained  in  England  (1814).  This  was  the  first  com- 
plete factory  in  the  modern  sense ;  that  is,  the  first  building 
in  which   all  the   processes  of  manufacturing,   from  the  raw 


— '         *-^B, 

%                                               A       -— — — ■    -r— ^H<tt.-*l    ^J 

flnffii  gP^^^^ 

^^^^^■^Mj^HH  HHdI 

1  qqMH    - 

EB&ii* 

HPOll    m 

q^P 

Courtesy  of  the  Draper  Corporation. 

A  Modern  Power  Loom 


292  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

material    to    the  completed   product,   were   carried  on  under 
one  roof. 

The  Spread  of  the  Factory  System.  The  new  power  loom 
worked  a  revolution  in  the  textile  industries.  Factories  sprang 
up  along  the  streams  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States, 
making  use  of  the  abundant  water  power;  factory  towns  like 
Lowell,  Lawrence,  Fall  River,  and  Paterson  came  into  existence  ; 
and  hand  labor,  as  in  England,  rapidly  gave  way  before  the  new 
methods  of  machine  production.  The  spread  of  the  factory 
system  reduced  the  price  of  cotton  cloth  from  forty  cents  a  yard 
in  1815  to  eight  cents  in  1829.  American  woolen  manufactures 
were  also  aided  by  the  new  machinery,  but  the  woolen  indus- 
try could  not  keep  pace  with  cotton  manufacturing  because 
our  farmers  did  not  supply  enough  raw  wool.  About  this  time, 
too,  Pennsylvania  began  to  develop  her  great  iron  industry.  The 
first  iron  foundry  was  established  at  Pittsburgh  in  1803 ;  while 
thirty  years  later,  that  city  could  boast  of  eight  rolling  mills, 
besides  nine  foundries  and  two  steel  furnaces.  The  census  of 
1810  gave  Pennsylvania  first  place  as  a  manufacturing  state, 
followed  in  order  by  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and 
Maryland.  In  that  year,  the  total  value  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts in  the  United  States  was  nearly  two  hundred  million 
dollars. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  345-349. 
Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  ch.  XVI. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  II. 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  II,  ch. 
XII  ;    III,  ch.   XXII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  Introduction  and  Growth  of  the  Factory  System.  Bogart, 
E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XI- XIII  ;  Cal- 
lender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  VI,  IX. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
PUSHING   THE   FRONTIER  WESTWARD 

The  Frontier  in  Our  Early  History.  The  growth  of  the  West 
was  the  most  important  fact  in  our  history  during  the  years  just 
after  the  War  of  1812.  This  was  a  continuation  of  the  westward 
movement  that  began  in  colonial  days,  when  the  first  settlers  cut 
into  the  forests  and  pushed  back  the  Indians.  There  was  a 
frontier  in  those  days,  but  it  lay  close  to  the  Atlantic  coast. 
By  1750  this  western  frontier  was  advancing  toward  the  Alle- 
gheny Mountains.  During  the  ten  years  following  the  Revolu- 
tion, thousands  of  settlers  crossed  the  mountains,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  future  states  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Ohio.  In  Jefferson's  administration  came  the  annexation  of 
Louisiana,  which  gave  us  the  Rocky  Mountains  instead  of  the 
Mississippi  River  as  our  western  boundary.  The  explorations  of 
Lewis  and  Clark  in  the  Northwest,  and  of  Pike  in  the  South- 
west, helped  to  open  up  this  vast  territory  to  settlement.  From 
the  journal  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  the  country  learned  of  the 
wonderful  resources  of  the  new  West ;  and  it  only  needed  a  period 
of  hard  times  in  the  East  to  send  thousands  of  men  westward 
in  search  of  new  homes. 

The  Westward  Movement  after  1812.  The  Embargo  Act 
and  the  War  of  1812  practically  destroyed  American  commerce, 
and  caused  a  period  of  severe  hard  times  in  all  the  seaboard 
states.  W^ith  the  return  of  peace,  a  new  westward  movement 
began.  Farmers  in  debt  and  laborers  out  of  work  sold  out  for 
what  they  could  get,  and  set  out  to  find  new  homes  along  the 
Great  Lakes  or  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Harrison's  victory  over  the  Indians  at  Tippecanoe,  followed  by 
the  cession  of  their  lands,  opened  up  thousands  of  fertile  acres 
in  Indiana  and  Illinois  to  men  who  had  been  tilling  the  stony 

293 


294 


THE   RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


hillsides  of  New  England.  By  his  conquest  of  the  Creek  Indians 
in  Alabama,  Andrew  Jackson  did  for  the  Southwest  what 
Harrison  had  done  for  the  Northwest ;  for  Jackson's  victories 
opened  up  the  rich  cotton  lands  of  the  Gulf  to  sturdy  pioneers 
from  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  the  Carolinas. 

Immigration  from  Europe.  The  western  lands  were  cheap 
as  well  as  fertile.  Until  1820  they  sold  at  $2  an  acre,  only  one 
fourth  of  which  had  to  be  paid  in  cash;  while  after  that  year 
the  price  was  $1.25  an  acre,  cash.    To  thousands  of  Europeans, 


Courtesy  of  the  Oregon  Historical  Society. 

Astoria,  1813 

This  fur-trading  post  and  fort  was  located  on  the  present  site  of  Astoria, 
-  Oregon. 

as  well  as  to  our  own  people,  these  cheap  lands  beckoned  like  the 
pot  of  gold  at  the  end  of  the  rainbow.  The  close  of  the  Napo- 
leonic wars  left  Europe  staggering  under  an  enormous  burden  of 
debt  and  taxes.  Beginning  about  1815,  thousands  of  English- 
men, Irishmen,  and  Germans  came  to  our  shores  to  swell  the 
stream  of  settlers  pouring  across  the  Alleghenies. 

As  these  men  traveled  westward  through  the  rich  farming 
regions  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  they  were  amazed  at  the 
prosperity  which  they  saw.  "  This  be  a  main  queer  country," 
said  a  Yorkshireman  who  with  his  family  was  on  his  way  to 


PUSHING   THE    FRONTIER   WESTWARD  295 

Zanesville,  Ohio.  "  This  be  a  main  queer  country,  for  I  have 
asked  the  laboring  folks  all  along  the  road  how  many  meals  they 
eat  in  a  day,  and  they  all  said  three  and  sometimes  four,  if 
they  wanted  them.  We  have  but  two  at  home,  and  they  are 
scanty  enough.  And  only  think,  sir,  many  of  these  people 
asked  me  to  eat  and  drink  with  them.  We  can't  do  it  in  York- 
shire, sir,  for  we  have  not  enough  for  ourselves.  " 


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Copyright  and  by  courtesy  of  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 

A  Westward  Caravan 

The  broad-wheeled  Conestoga  wagon,  named  for  the  Pennsylvania  town  of 
its  manufacture,  provided  the  best  method  of  transporting  over  the  prairies 
the  women  and  children  and  the  scanty  household  goods.  The  white  cover- 
ing, however,  made  an  excellent  target  for  the  Indians. 

"  Old  America  Seems  to  be  Breaking  up."  Every  section  of 
the  Union  was  helping  to  swell  the  never-ending  westward 
stream.  One  of  the  most  popular  routes  to  the  West  was  the 
newly  built  National  Road  across  Pennsylvania.  "  Old  America 
seems  to  be  breaking  up,  and  moving  westward,"  wrote 
Morris  Birkbeck  as  he  passed  along  this  road  in  1817.  "  We  are 
seldom  out  of  sight,  as  we  travel  on  this  grand  track  towards 
the   Ohio,  of  family  groups,  behind  and  before  us.   .    .    .     A 


296 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


Lincoln's  Birthplace 


small  wagon  (so  light  that  you  might  almost  carry  it,  yet  strong 
enough  to  bear  a  good  load  of  bedding,  utensils,  and  provisions, 
and  a  swarm  of  young  citizens)  —  with  two  small  horses,  and 
sometimes  a  cow  or  two,  comprises  their  all ;  excepting  a  little 
store  of  hard-earned  cash  for  the  land  office  of  the  district, 
where  they  may  obtain  a  title  for  as  many  acres  as  they  possess 
half-dollars,  being  one  fourth  of  the  purchase  money.  The  wagon 
has  a  tilt,  or  cover,  made  of  a  sheet,  or  perhaps  a  blanket.   The 

family  are  seen  before, 


behind,  or  within  the 
vehicle,  according  to  the 
road  or  the  weather,  or 
perhaps  the  spirits  of 
the  party.  ...  A  cart 
and  single  horse  fre- 
quently affords  the 
means  of  transfer,  some- 
times a  horse  and  pack- 
saddle.  Often  the  back 
of  the  poor  pilgrim  bears  all  his  effects,  and  his  wife  follows, 
barefooted." 

A  New  Cotton  Kingdom.  While  the  Northwest  was  changing 
from  a  wilderness  to  a  land  of  farmers  and  town  builders,  the 
Southwest  was  fast  becoming  a  great  cotton-raising  section. 
A  traveler  on  his  way  from  Nashville  to  Georgia  in  1817  speaks 
of  the  astonishing  number  of  people  he  met  from  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia,  bound  for  the  cotton  lands  of  Alabama.  He  counted 
over  two  hundred  wagons  and  three  thousand  people,  driving 
immense  herds  of  cattle  and  droves  of  hogs.  This  emigration 
was  the  result  of  Whitney's  gin,  which  made  profitable  the 
cultivation  of  the  short-fiber  cotton  of  the  uplands. 

By  1834  the  new  Southwest  had  outstripped  the  old  South 
in  the  production  of  its  chief  staple.  The  worn-out  lands  of  the 
seaboard  could  not  compete  successfully  with  the  cheap  and 
fertile  lands  of  the  Gulf  Basin.  The  result  was  disastrous  to  the 
planters  of  the  tidewater  region.  It  was  said  that  the  larger 
Virginia  plantations,  with  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  slaves,  did 


PUSHING   THE   FRONTIER   WESTWARD  297 

not  yield  two  per  cent  profit  on  the  capital  invested.  So  many 
proprietors  were  in  debt  that  Randolph  prophesied  the  time 
would  come  when  the  masters  would  run  away  from  their 
slaves,  and  be  advertised  by  them  in  the  public  papers.  In  his 
declining  years,  Jefferson  was  in  such  need  of  money  that  a 
public  subscription  was  taken  up  for  his  benefit.  Madison,  too, 
was  obliged  to  sell  much  of  his  land ;  while  Monroe  at  the  close 
of  his  term  of  office  found  himself  financially  ruined,  and  went 
to  live  with  his  son-in-law  in  New  York  City. 

Lincoln's  Family  Moves  to  Indiana.  The  story  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  and  of  Jefferson  Davis  illustrates  the  westward  move- 
ment in  these  years.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  born  in  a  barren, 
hilly  region  of  Kentucky  in  1809.  Jefferson  Davis  was  born  near 
Lincoln's  home  one  year  earlier.  When  Lincoln  was  a  boy  of 
seven,  his  father,  a  poor  carpenter,  took  his  family  across  the 
Ohio  River  and  settled  in  southern  Indiana.  For  over  a  year 
the  Lincoln  family  lived  in  a  " half-faced  camp"  or  shed  closed 
on  three  sides,  with  the  fourth  left  open  to  the  weather.  The 
young  Lincoln  watched  his  father  hew  out  a  clearing  in  the 
midst  of  the  forest,  and  plant  his  first  crop  of  Indian  corn 
between  the  stumps.  The  half -faced  camp  gave  way  to  a  one- 
room  log  cabin,  which  for  some  years  had  neither  floor,  door, 
nor  windows.  It  was  before  the  fireside  of  this  rude  cabin  that 
Lincoln  read  the  few  books  which  he  was  able  to  lay  hands  on. 
A  well-known  story  tells  how  he  once  walked  six  miles  to 
obtain  a  copy  of  a  coveted  English  grammar ;  and  a  familiar 
picture  of  the  young  Lincoln  shows  him  lying  before  the  fireside 
of  the  rude  cabin,  writing  and  working  out  sums  on  the  wooden 
shovel  which  he  could  shave  off  whenever  he  needed  a  new 
tablet. 

Abraham  Lincoln  in  Illinois.  By  the  year  1830  Lincoln  had 
grown  into  a  strapping  youth,  six  feet  four  inches  in  height, 
who  could  sink  his  ax  deeper  into  a  tree  than  any  man  of  the 
neighborhood.  About  this  time  his  father,  like  many  another 
restless  pioneer,  pushed  westward  again,  this  time  into  the 
Sangamon  country  of  Illinois.  Here  Lincoln  became  in  turn 
storekeeper,  postmaster,  road  surveyor,  lawyer,  member  of  the 


z 


298  THE   RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

state  legislature,  and  Congressman.  In  each  position  his  sterling 
honesty  won  the  confidence  of  all  who  knew  him. 

A  second  striking  characteristic  of  Lincoln  was  his  close 
sympathetic  touch  with  the  people  about  him.  He  understood 
and  loved  the  people  of  his  neighborhood,  knew  how  they 
thought  and  felt  on  the  questions  of  the  day.  At  first  the  public 
which  he  understood  so  well  included  only  his  own  frontier 
settlement ;  then  it  widened  to  include  the  state  of  Illinois,  and 
finally  the  people  of  the  entire  North.  In  his  youth,  Lincoln 
seemed  not  much  superior  to  his  rude  surroundings,  save  in  his 
zeal  for  self-improvement.  But  Lincoln  grew  as  the  frontier 
grew,  only  faster ;  and  just  as  the  rude  frontier  cabins  and 
stump-covered  acres  were  supplanted  by  comfortable  homes 
and  well-tilled  farms,  so  the  youthful  Lincoln  of  the  frontier 
grew  into  the  sturdy,  honest,  always  sympathetic  man,  capable 
of  leading  our  nation  through  the  greatest  crisis  in  its  history. 

Life  on  a  Southern  Plantation.  The  father  of  Jefferson 
Davis  took  his  family  toward  the  Southwest,  moving  first  to 
Louisiana,  then  into  Mississippi,  where  the  family  lived  on  a 
typical  southern  plantation.  The  plantation  was  really  a  little 
world  in  itself,  supplying  most  of  its  own  needs.  Here  was  made 
much  of  the  clothing  for  the  slaves,  the  work  of  spinning  and 
weaving  being  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  mistress  of 
the  plantation.  Near  the  mansion  house,  itself  often  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  grove  of  stately  oaks,  were  the  millhouse,  the 
blacksmith's  forge,  and  the  carpenter  shop.  To  the  rear  stood 
the  overseer's  house,  and  beyond  that  a  group  of  cabins  for  the 
slaves.  Behind  each  little  cabin  was  a  garden  plot  where  the 
slave  might  raise  fowls  and  vegetables  for  himself.  The  field 
hands  were  divided  into  classes  according  to  their  physical 
strength,  the  children  and  women  doing  the  work  of  "  half- 
hands,"  or  "  quarter-hands,"  at  least. 

A  Northerner  who  visited  one  of  the  large  plantations  in 
Mississippi  gives  us  an  interesting  account  of  what  he  saw  :  "  The 
whole  plantation,  including  the  swamp  land  around  it,  covered 
several  square  miles.  It  was  four  miles  from  the  settlement  to 
the  nearest  neighbor's  house.    There  were  between  thirteen  and 


PUSHING   THE   FRONTIER   WESTWARD 


299 


fourteen  hundred  acres  under  cultivation  with  cotton,  corn,  and 
other  hoed  crops,  and  two  hundred  hogs  running  at  large  in  the 
swamp.  .  .  .  There  were  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
slaves,  big  and  little,  of  which  sixty-seven  went  to  field  regularly 
—  equal,  the  overseer  thought,  to  fully  sixty  prime  hands.  .  .  . 
We  found  in  the  field  thirty  plows,  moving  together,  turning  the 


•IKSflfiL 

8  T  fx« 

'  '  (!  li ^  ^   ^     !>■ 

Z3ZZ1 .               .  ,> 

A  South  Carolina  Estate 

The  low  corridor  at  the  left  connects  the  house  with  the  kitchens  and 
servants'  quarters. 

Notice  the  streamers  of  Spanish  moss  hanging  from  the  trees. 

earth  from  the  cotton  plants,  and  from  thirty  to  forty  hoers,  the 
latter  mainly  women. 

"  I  asked  at  what  time  they  began  to  work  in  the  morning. 
1  Well,  I  don't  never  start  my  niggers  'fore  daylight,  'less  'tis 
in  pickin'  time,  then  maybe  I  get  'em  out  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
before.  But  I  keep  'em  right  smart  to  work  through  the  day.' 
He  showed  an  evident  pride  in  the  vigilance  of  his  driver,  and 
called  my  attention  to  the  large  area  of  ground  already  hoed 
over  that  morning ;  well  hoed,  too,  as  he  said.  'At  what  time 
do  they  eat?  '  I  asked.  They  ate  '  their  snacks'  in  their  cabins, 
he  said,  before  they  came  out  in  the  morning ;  then  at  twelve 


300  THE    RISE   OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

o'clock  their  dinner  was  brought  to  them  in  a  cart  —  one  cart 
for  the  plow-gang  and  one  for  the  hoe-gang.  .  .  .  All 
worked  as  late  as  they  could  see  to  work  well,  and  had  no  more 
food  nor  rest  until  they  returned  to  their  cabins.  At  half-past 
nine  o'clock,  the  drivers  blew  a  horn,  and  at  ten  visited  every 
cabin  to  see  that  its  occupants  were  at  rest,  and  not  lurking 
about  and  spending  their  strength  in  fooleries,  and  that  the  fires 
were  safe." 

How  the  Frontier  was  Governed.  Congress  adopted  a  broad 
and  liberal  policy  in  governing  its  western  territories,  modeled 
on  the  plan  of  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787.  The  settlers  were 
granted  local  self-government,  and  as  soon  as  the  population 
was  large  enough,  the  territory  was  admitted  to  statehood. 

In  all,  twenty-nine  of  our  forty-eight  states  have  been  first 
organized  and  governed  as  territories.  Under  the  plan  usually 
followed,  executive  power  in  the  territory  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  powers 
of  this  governor  are  similar  to  those  of  the  governor  of  a  state, 
but  he  is  directly  responsible  to  the  President.  The  territorial 
legislature  consists  of  two  houses,  the  members  of  which  are 
elected  by  the  voters.  Judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  and 
several  district  courts,  the  judges  being  appointed  by  the 
President.  Each  territory  is  permitted  to  send  a  delegate  to  the 
House  of  Representatives.  When  the  people  of  a  territory  are 
ready  to  ask  for  statehood,  they  elect  members  of  a  convention 
to  draw  up  a  state  constitution.  This  constitution  is  then  sub- 
mitted to  Congress  for  approval,  as  well  as  to  the  voters  of  the 
territory.  Congress  may  then  pass  a  resolution  admitting  the 
new  state  to  the  Union. 

Local  Government  in  the  Territories.  The  settlers  in  the 
West  soon  developed  two  important  institutions  :  first,  a  system 
of  local  government  like  the  one  they  had  left  in  the  states ; 
and  second  —  in  the  northern  territories  —  a  district  school 
system  like  that  of  New  England.  The  plan  of  local  government 
adopted  throughout  the  Northwest  was  the  county-township 
plan,  like  that  of  Pennsylvania ;  while  the  Southwest  adopted 
the  county  plan  universal  throughout  the  old  South.   Under  the 


PUSHING   THE   FRONTIER   WESTWARD  301 

county-township  plan  of  the  Northwest,  the  work  of  local 
government  is  divided  between  the  county  and  its  smaller 
districts  called  townships.  The  county  builds  the  courthouse 
for  the  administration  of  justice  and  for  the  offices  of  the  county 
clerk,  treasurer,  and  recorder ;  elects  a  sheriff  and  prosecuting 
attorney  to  enforce  the  laws ;  constructs  bridges  and  other 
public  works ;  and  collects  the  taxes  necessary  for  the  work  of 
local  government.  The  township  maintains  the  schools,  looks 
after  road  building,  elects  justices  of  the  peace,  and  cares  for 
the  poor. 

The  District  School  System.  The  pioneers  in  the  Northwest 
also  took  with  them  the  district  school  system  for  which  New 
England  is  famous.  The  western  lands  had  been  surveyed  and 
divided  into  small  districts  called  townships,  each  six  miles 
square.  When  the  settlers  moved  into  the  township,  they 
organized  it  into  a  school  district,  electing  trustees  to  employ 
a  teacher  and  manage  school  affairs.  Several  one-room  school- 
houses  were  usually  built,  for  a  school  located  near  the  center 
of  the  township  would  be  too  far  away  for  many  of  the  children. 
So  at  each  crossroads  was  built  the  little  red  schoolhouse  that 
has  played  such  a  prominent  part  in  our  history.  The  district 
school  brought  elementary  education  within  easy  reach  of 
every  child,  and  proved  an  important  factor  in  our  national 
progress. 

Slavery  Becomes  a  Sectional  Question.  Slavery  existed  in 
all  of  the  states  in  1776,  but  during  the  next  twenty  years  a  move- 
ment for  emancipation  swept  over  the  entire  North.  Vermont, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts  led  the  way,  and  by  the 
year  1804  all  of  the  northern  states  except  Delaware  had  either 
abolished  slavery  outright,  or  provided  for  gradual  emancipa- 
tion. South  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  there  were  men  like 
Washington,  Jefferson,  and  Madison,  who  wished  to  abolish 
slavery.  But  emancipation  was  a  difficult  problem  at  the  South, 
for  there  were  many  more  slaves  than  at  the  North,  and  the 
Southerners  could  not  decide  what  to  do  with  the  negroes  if  they 
were  made  free.  Then  came  the  invention  of  Whitney's  cotton 
gin  (1793),  which  changed  the  whole  situation.    Slaves  became 


302 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


so  valuable  that  the  planters  were  unwilling  to  think  of  setting 
them  free.  So  the  South  accepted  slavery  as  a  permanent 
institution  at  the  very  time  that  the  northern  states  decided  to 
free  their  slaves.  Henceforth  the  country  was  to  be  made  up  of  a 
free  and  a  slave  section  ;  each  felt  that  its  interests  were  separate 
and  distinct,  and  thus  began  the  opposition  between  the  North 
and  the  South  which  finally  led  to  secession  and  civil  war. 


The  Lincoln  Memorial  at  Hodgenville,  Kentucky 

The  log  cabin  in  which  Lincoln  was  born  is  included  within  this  memorial 
building,  erected  from  money  subscribed  by  the  school  children  of  the  United 
States. 

Congress  and  Slavery.  Meantime,  the  national  government 
had  passed  several  important  measures  on  the  subject  of  slavery. 
In  organizing  the  Northwest  Territory  (1787),  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  prohibited  slavery  throughout  this  entire 
region.  Then,  shortly  after  the  constitution  was  adopted, 
Congress  passed  the  first  Fugitive  Slave  Law  (1793).  This 
provided,  as  the  constitution  itself  suggested,  for  the  return  of 
escaping  slaves  to  their  masters.  By  a  later  act,  Congress  for- 
bade the  importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States  after 


PUSHING   THE   FRONTIER   WESTWARD  303 

January  1,  1808.  Although  this  law  was  frequently  violated  by 
smugglers,  the  worst  evils  of  the  African  slave  trade  were  at  an 
end. 

The  Westward  Movement  and  Slavery.  As  a  result  of  the 
westward  movement,  five  new  states  were  added  to  the  Union 
between  1812  and  1819.  These  were  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
and  Alabama  at  the  South,  Indiana  and  Illinois  in  the  North- 
west. These  three  southern  states  doubled  their  population 
between  1810  and  1820,  while  in  the  same  decade,  Indiana  and 
Illinois  each  multiplied  its  population  by  five.  The  three  states 
at  the  South  came  in  as  slave  states,  Indiana  and  Illinois  as  free 
states.  Missouri,  too,  was  growing  rapidly,  trebling  its  popula- 
tion between  1810  and  1820.  In  this  territory  the  two  streams 
of  migration  met,  free  farmers  from  the  North  and  slaveholding 
planters  from  the  South.  The  question  whether  Missouri  should 
enter  the  Union  as  a  free  or  as  a  slave  state  was  soon  to  arouse 
the  whole  country  to  the  fact  that  slavery  had  become  a  sectional 
question ;  that  is,  one  on  which  North  and  South  held  opposite 
views.  Men  like  Lincoln  who  grew  up  in  the  atmosphere  of 
freedom  were  beginning  to  regard  slavery  as  a  great  evil,  one 
which  might  be  endured  at  the  South,  but  must  not  be  extended 
into  the  West.  On  the  other  hand,  planters  like  Davis,  reared 
in  the  cotton  kingdom,  believed  just  as  firmly  that  the  extension 
of  the  slave  system  was  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  South. 

REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Babcock,  K.  C,  The  Rise  of  American  Nationality  (American  Nation 

Series),  ch.  XV. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  III. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  II,  ch.  XXII  ; 

III,  chs.  V,  XXI. 
Johnston,  A.,   Union  and  Democracy,  ch.  XIV. 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the   United  States,  III,  ch. 

XXII. 
Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  IV. 
Turner,  F.  J.,  Rise  of  the  New  West  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 

V-VIII. 


304  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  The  Westward  Movement.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  ch.  XIV  ;  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  ch.  XII. 

REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Westward  Movement,  pp.  3-60. 

Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  chs.   XIV- XV,  XVII- 

XIX. 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  VI. 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American  Frontier,  chs.  I-IV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Boyhood  of  Lincoln.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  A  New  Nation,  pp.  166- 
180  ;  Gordy,  W.  F.,  Abraham  Lincoln,  ch.  I  ;  Morgan,  J.,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  The  Boy  and  the  Man,  chs.  I-V. 

2.  Life  on  the  Western  Frontier.  Great  Epochs  in  American  His- 
tory, V,  pp.  154-157  ;  Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest, 
ch.  VII  ;  Wright,  H.  C.,  American  Progress,  ch.  I. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


THE   MONROE   DOCTRINE   AND   THE    MISSOURI 
COMPROMISE 

The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  In  March,  1817,  Madison  was 
succeeded  as  chief  executive  by  his  Secretary  of  State,  James 
Monroe,  the  fourth  distinguished  Virginian  chosen  to  that 
high  office.  Following  sixteen  years  of  bitter  political  strife,  now 
came  a  period  of  calm.  The 
Federalist  party  cast  only 
thirty-four  electoral  votes 
against  Monroe  in  1816 ; 
while  four  years  later,  party 
opposition  disappeared  com- 
pletely, and  Monroe  re- 
ceived every  electoral  vote 
save  one.  It  seemed  to  be 
an  "  Era  of  Good  Feeling," 
as  the  Boston  Centinel  said  ; 
and  by  this  name  Monroe's 
administration  has  ever 
since  been  known. 

Following  the  example  of 
Washington,  who  had  made 
long  trips  through  different 
sections  of  the  country, 
Monroe  started  on   a  tour 


James  Monroe 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Gilbert 
Stuart. 


of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  afterwards  traveling 
west  as  far  as  Detroit.  Everywhere  the  President  was  re- 
ceived with  enthusiastic  welcome.  The  three  months'  journey 
through  the  northern  states  made  Monroe  as  popular  in  that 
section  as  he  was  at  the  South.  The  new  President  deserved  the 

305 


a 


306 


THE 


r    f ' 


A. 
RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

confidence  and  esteem  of  his  countrymen.  Intellectually,  he  was 
hardly  the  equal  of  Jefferson  or  Madison  ;  but  a  man  more  honest 
or  sincere  never  sat  in  the  presidential  chair.  As  Jefferson  said, 
Monroe  was  "  a  man  whose  soul  might  be  turned  inside  out 
without  discovering  a  blemish  to  the  world." 

The  Purchase  of  Florida,  1819.  As  special  envoy  to  France, 
Monroe  had  helped  bring  about  our  first  great  expansion,  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana.  Now,  as  President,  he  was  to  achieve  the 

second  step,  the  purchase  of  Florida. 
For  years  the  United  States  had 
coveted  this  Spanish  territory  which 
shut  off  Mississippi,  Alabama,  and 
Georgia  from  their  natural  outlet  to 
the  Gulf.  Then,  too,  Spain's  weak 
rule  made  her  colony  a  constant 
menace  to  our  settlers  in  the  South- 
west. Florida  was  the  haven  of 
smugglers  and  pirates,  of  runaway 
slaves  and  marauding  Indians.  From 
their  safe  refuge  in  the  Florida 
swamps,  these  lawless  bands  would 
sally  forth  to  plunder  and  massacre 
the  white  settlers  of  Georgia.  The 
worst  outrages  were  the  work  of  the 
Seminoles,  a  wandering  band  of  Creek 
Indians.  To  end  these  raids,  General 
ordered  to  take  the  field.  Jackson  be- 
Marching  his  army 


Our  First  Stars  and  Stripes 

Adopted  by  Act  of  Congress 
June  14,  1777,  and  raised  by 
John  Paul  Jones  on  the  Ranger 
in  Portsmouth  harbor,  July  4, 
1777. 

With  the  admission  of  Ver- 
mont and  Kentucky  in  1791 
and  1792,  Congress  authorized 
the  flag  to  contain  fifteen 
stripes  and  fifteen  stars.  This 
was  the  national  flag  for  23 
years,  and  inspired  the  "Star- 
Spangled  Banner." 


Andrew  Jackson  was 
lieved  in  promptness  and  thoroughness 
into  Florida,  he  defeated  the  Seminoles,  captured  the  Spanish 
forts  at  St.  Marks  and  Pensacola,  and  hanged  two  British  sub- 
jects who  had  aided  the  Indians. 

Spain  protested  strongly  against  this  invasion  of  her  territory, 
but  at  last  decided  to  sell  what  she  knew  must  sooner  or  later 
slip  out  of  her  hands.  So  in  1819  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the 
United  States  for  $5,000,000.  The  treaty  also  settled  our  long 
dispute  over  the  southwestern  boundary  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase.   We  yielded  to  Spain  our  claim  to  Texas,  and  accepted 


MONROE  DOCTRINE  AND  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE     307 


the  Sabine  River  instead  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  our  southwestern 
boundary.  In  return,  Spain  ceded  to  the  United  States  her 
claims  on  the  Pacific  coast  north  of  the  parallel  of  42°,  thus 
strengthening  our  title  to  the  Oregon  country. 

Revolt  of  the  Spanish-American  Colonies.  The  loss  of 
Florida  was  not  Spain's  only  misfortune.  One  by  one,  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  Central  and  South  America  declared  their 
independence  of  the  fast-crumbling  empire.  Spain  was  too  weak 
to  conquer  her  rebellious  colonies ; 
they  were  lost  to  her  forever  unless 
the  great  powers  of  Europe  should 
come  to  her  aid.  For  a  time,  it 
seemed  as  if  this  very  thing  might 
happen.  The  monarchs  of  Austria, 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  France  had 
united  in  what  they  called  a  Holy 
Alliance,  which  was  really  a  league 
to  support  the  absolute  power  of 
kings,  and  to  crush  any  revolt  on  the 
part  of  the  people. 

There  was  good  reason  to  believe 
that  the  countries  forming  the  Holy 
Alliance  were  about  to  send  an  army 
to  South  America  to  restore  Spanish 
rule,  or  perhaps  to  secure  new  colo- 
nies for  themselves.  Such  an  attack 
would  be  a  matter  of  vital  concern  to 

the  United  States.  Our  country  was  interested  in  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Spanish  colonies  for  two  reasons,  one  a  business 
reason,  the  other  a  matter  of  sentiment.  The  independence  of 
these  colonies  would  give  our  country  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the 
world  an  opportunity  to  trade  with  them,  whereas  Spain's 
colonial  system  reserved  all  of  this  trade  to  herself.  Moreover, 
the  struggle  of  the  Spanish-American  colonists  appealed  strongly 
to  our  liberty-loving  people ;  for  they  seemed  to  be  fighting  for 
the  very  principles  of  our  own  Revolution.  In  response  to 
popular  sentiment,  Congress  and  the  President  had  recognized 


Our  Flag  Adopted   July  4, 
1818 

The  Act  of  1794  authorizing 
a  star  and  a  stripe  for  each  new 
state  became  embarrassing, 
and  Congress  passed  the  law 
requiring  the  original  thirteen 
stripes  to  be  restored,  but  an 
additional  star  to  be  added  for 
each  state.  In  this  form  the 
flag  has  remained.  The  Stars 
and  Stripes  were  not  officially 
carried  by  troops  in  battle  until 
the  Mexican  War. 


308  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 

the  independence  of  the  South  American  countries  in  1822. 
Would  it  not  be  dangerous  to  our  own  freedom  if,  after  this 
recognition,  we  were  to  permit  the  combined  armies  of  Europe 
to  crush  the  new  republics? 

Nor  was  the  situation  less  serious  on  our  own  continent. 
The  czar  of  Russia  had  just  issued  a  decree  claiming  the  ter- 
ritory along  the  Pacific  coast  as  far  south  as  the  fifty-first 
parallel.  This  struck  at  our  claim  to  the  Oregon  country,  then 
held  in  joint  occupation  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
By  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  and  Florida,  we  had  removed  two 
dangerous  neighbors  from  our  borders.  A  new  menace  now 
confronted  us  in  Russia's  southward  march  from  Alaska. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  1823.  Clearly,  the  time  had  come 
for  the  United  States  to  take  a  decided  stand  on  the  question 
of  European  interference  in  American  affairs.  Great  Britain 
had  held  aloof  from  the  Holy  Alliance.  She  was  not  in  sympathy 
with  absolute  government,  and  her  commerce  would  benefit  by 
a  free  South  America.  Her  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  George 
Canning,  now  proposed  that  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  should  unite  in  a  declaration  that  we  would  not  permit 
an  attack  upon  the  new  republics.  But  John  Quincy  Adams, 
our  Secretary  of  State,  advised  President  Monroe  that  the 
United  States  should  act  alone  on  what  was  clearly  an  American 
question.  The  President  decided  to  adopt  this  course,  and  in 
his  famous  message  to  Congress  on  December  2,  1823,  an- 
nounced to  the  world  the  famous  Monroe  Doctrine : 

(1)  As  heretofore,  the  United  States  "  will  not  interfere  in 
the  internal  concerns  "  of  any  European  power. 

(2)  European  governments  must  not  meddle  in  American 
affairs  or  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  young  republics. 

(3)  European  nations  must  not  attempt  to  set  up  any  new 
colonies  on  either  American  continent. 

Thus  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine  "  is  really  a  declaration  of 
home  rule  —  America  for  the  Americans.  Russia  heeded  the 
warning,  and  by  a  treaty  signed  in  1824,  gave  up  her  claim  to 
the  territory  south  of  the  parallel  54°  40'.  Nor  did  the  Holy 
Alliance  venture  to  attack  the  countries  of  South  America  at  the 


MONROE  DOCTRINE  AND  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE       309 

risk  of  war  with  the  United  States.  From  Monroe's  day  to  the 
present,  the  doctrine  which  bears  his  name  has  been  a  shield 
for  the  liberties  of  the  western  world. 

The  Sectional  Question  of  Slavery.  The  "  era  of  good 
feeling  "  did  not  last  long,  for  in  1819  a  bitter  dispute  arose 
between  the  North  and  the  South  over  the  admission  of  Missouri. 
This  territory  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  ;  and  except 
Louisiana  itself,  it  was  the  first  state  to  be  formed  within  the 
vast  area  purchased  from  France.  Peopled  largely  by  Southern- 
ers who  had  migrated  with  their  slaves,  Missouri  was  seeking 
admission  to  the  Union  as  a  slave  state.  Northern  members 
of  Congress  opposed  the  request,  while  a  united  South  favored 
it.  By  this  time,  slavery  had  been  abolished  throughout  the 
North,  where  the  climate  and  industrial  life  combined  to  make 
it  unprofitable.  The  ignorant  slave  could  not  operate  New 
England's  machinery;  the  Ordinance  of  1787  excluded  slavery 
from  the  Northwest ;  and  so  it  came  about  that  by  1804,  the 
Ohio  River  marked  the  boundary  between  freedom  and  slavery. 

At  the  South,  different  conditions  prevailed.  The  warm,  moist 
climate  was  favorable  to  African  labor.  On  the  large  cotton,  rice, 
and  tobacco  plantations  many  hands  rather  than  skill  seemed  nec- 
essary to  production.  So  slavery  became  more  and  more  essential 
to  the  industry  of  the  South.  In  Revolutionary  days,  slavery  was 
strongly  condemned  by  southern  leaders  ;  and  for  a  time  it  seemed 
as  if  gradual  emancipation  might  occur.  Then  came  Whitney's 
invention  of  the  cotton  gin  (1793),  which  made  profitable  the  rais- 
ing of  short-fiber  cotton,  and  extended  the  area  of  cotton  produc- 
tion from  the  seaboard  far  back  into  the  interior.  This  invention 
fastened  slavery  upon  the  South.  "  King  Cotton  "  became  su- 
preme ;  the  demand  for  cotton  increased  the  demand  for  slaves, 
and  above  all,  for  more  slave  territory.  Southern  statesmen  still 
admitted  that  slavery  was  an  evil ;  but  they  claimed  that  it  was 
necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  their  section,  and  demanded  that 
the  institution  should  be  allowed  to  spread  westward. 

The  Missouri  Compromise,  1820.  When  Missouri  was  seeking 
admission,  the  eleven  states  north  of  Maryland  and  the  Ohio 
River  were  free,  while  south  of  that  line  were  eleven  slave  states. 


310  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

North  and  South  were  thus  equally  balanced  in  the  Senate, 
where  each  state  has  two  votes.  But  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  North  outvoted  the  South,  having  105  members 
against  81.  The  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state  would 
give  the  South  control  of  the  Senate,  and  make  certain  the  de- 
feat of  any  anti-slavery  measure  that  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives might  pass.  The  Missouri  question  was  debated  long 
and  bitterly,  but  at  last  Congress  found  a  way  out  of  the 
difficulty.  Just  at  this  time  Maine,  until  then  a  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  seeking  admission  as  a  free  state.  The  Senate 
refused  to  admit  Maine  as  a  free  state  unless  Missouri  should 
come  in  as  a  slave  state.  Finally  in  1820  Congress  passed  the 
famous  Missouri  Compromise  as  a  means  of  ending  the  dispute. 
By  the  terms  of  this  compromise  : 

(1)  Maine  was  to  be  admitted  as  a  free  state. 

(2)  Missouri  was  to  come  in  as  a  slave  state. 

(3)  Slavery  was  forever  prohibited  in  the  remainder  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  the  parallel  36°  30'  (the  southern 
boundary  of  Missouri). 

Results  of  the  Compromise.  Men  hoped  that  by  this  com- 
promise the  slavery  dispute  would  be  settled  for  all  time ;  but 
farsighted  statesmen  like  Jefferson  and  Adams  thought  other- 
wise. "  This  momentous  question,"  wrote  Jefferson,  "  like  a 
fire  bell  in  the  night,  awakened  me  and  filled  me  with  terror. 
.  .  .  It  is  hushed,  indeed,  for  the  moment.  But  this  is  a 
reprieve  only,  not  a  final  sentence."  To  John  Quincy  Adams, 
the  slavery  dispute  was  but  the  "  title  page  to  a  great  tragic 
volume."  While  the  Missouri  Compromise  secured  a  kind  of 
peace  between  the  two  sections  for  the  next  thirty  years,  it 
did  not  by  any  means  put  an  end  to  the  agitation  of  the  slavery 
issue.  At  the  time,  the  measure  was  regarded  as  a  victory  for  the 
South,  but  it  was  really  a  permanent  gain  for  the  North.  The 
compromise  left  only  Missouri  and  Arkansas  open  to  slavery; 
while  freedom  won  the  much  larger  region  north  of  36°  30'. 
Moreover,  this  measure,  like  the  Northwest  Ordinance,  set  a 
precedent  in  favor  of  the  power  of  Congress  to  control  slavery 
in  the  territories.    The  power  of  Congress  to  do  this  was  after- 


MONROE   DOCTRINE   AND   MISSOURI   COMPROMISE     311 


The  United  States  in  1820 

Showing  the  eleven  free  and  eleven  slave  states,  before  the  admission  of  Maine 
and  Missouri,  and  the  disposition  of  the  territories. 


wards  denied  by  the  Southerners,  and  just  before  the  Civil  War 
the  Supreme  Court  sustained  their  position. 

A  Second  Compromise  Proves  Necessary.  In  the  fall  of 
1820,  the  Missouri  question  in  a  new  form  returned  to  vex 
Congress.  The  constitution  adopted  by  Missouri  prohibited 
free  negroes  from  entering  the  state.  At  once  the  controversy 
broke  out  anew,  even  more  bitter  than  in  the  previous  session. 
Northern  members  declared  that  the  clause  concerning  free 
negroes  was  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  provision  in  the 
federal  constitution  which  guarantees  that  "  the  citizens  of 
each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of 
citizens  in  the  several  states."  The  House  twice  refused  to 
pass  the  bill  admitting  Missouri  under  her  proposed  constitu- 
tion ;  meantime,  southern  Congressmen  charged  the  North 
with  bad  faith  in  having  secured  the  admission  of  Maine,  while 
still  opposing  the  admission  of  Missouri.  A  second  compromise 
suggested  by  Henry  Clay  was  finally  adopted  by  the  joint 
committee  of  the  Senate  and  House,     This  provided  for  the 


312 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


admission  of  Missouri  on  condition  that  the  state  should  agree 
never  to  pass  a  law  enforcing  the  objectionable  clause  of  her 
constitution.  Missouri  promptly  accepted  this  condition,  and 
was  admitted  as  the  twenty-fourth  state  in  August,  1821. 

Lafayette's  Visit  to  the  United  States.  Forty  years  had 
elapsed  since  General  Lafayette's  return  to  his  native  France 
at  the  close  of  the  American  Revolution.  In  1824,  the  aged  vet- 
eran was  persuaded  to  revisit  the  country  he  had  so  nobly 

served.  Lafayette  was  the 
honored  guest  of  the  nation 
for  thirteen  months,  visiting 
the  old  battlefields,  greeting 
his  few  surviving  comrades 
of  the  Revolution,  every- 
where receiving  the  homage 
of  a  grateful  people.  At 
Mount  Vernon,  Lafayette 
visited  the  tomb  of  Wash- 
ington, whom  he  had  loved 
as  a  father.  At  Boston,  he 
was  the  guest  of  honor  at 
the  laying  of  the  cornerstone 
of  Bunker  Hill  monument, 
just  fifty  years  after  that 
famous  battle.  Every  one 
applauded  when  Congress 
voted  General  Lafayette  a  gift  of  $200,000,  together  with  a  town- 
ship of  public  land ,  in  recognition  of  his  gallant  services .  His  visit 
ended,  Lafayette  returned  to  France  in  the  ship  Brandywine, 
named  in  honor  of  the  battle  in  which  he  had  fought  so  well. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1824.  At  the  close  of  Monroe's 
second  term,  there  was  only  one  political  party,  the  Republican  ; 
for  the  Federalist  party  had  ceased  to  exist,  and  no  new  party 
had  yet  been  formed  to  take  its  place.  So  the  presidential  contest 
of  1824  was  a  "  free-for-all "  race  between  four  prominent  leaders, 
rather  than  a  contest  between  political  parties.  New  England's 
candidate  was  John  Quincy  Adams,  tHen  "Secretary  of  State; 


From  an  old  print. 

John  Quincy  Adams 


MONROE  DOCTRINE  AND  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE      313 

Virginia  favored  Georgia's  favorite  son,  William  Crawford ; 
while  Andrew  Jackson  of  Tennessee  was  the  idol  of  the  South- 
west, and  divided  with  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky  the  support  of 
the  West. 

When  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  it  was  found  that  none 
of  the  four  candidates  had  a  majority;  and  for  the  second  time 
in  our  history  the  choice  of  a  President  was  made  by  the  House 
of  Representatives.  The  constitution  provides  that  the  House 
shall  choose  from  the  three  candidates  having  the  highest 
number  of  electoral  votes.  This  put  Clay,  who  was  fourth,  out 
of  the  race ;  he  promptly  decided  to  support  Adams,  and  the 
House  chose  him  as  President.  More  men  had  voted  for  Jackson 
than  for  any  other  candidate;  and  his  disappointed  friends 
claimed  that  the  election  of  Adams  had  defeated  the  "  will  of  the 
people."  When  President  Adams  appointed  Clay  as  his  Secre- 
tary of  State,  their  disappointment  changed  to  rage.  They 
openly  charged  that  Adams  had  secured  the  presidency  by  a 
corrupt  bargain,  that  he  had  promised  this  Cabinet  appointment 
in  return  for  the  votes  of  Clay's  followers.  Jackson  called  Clay 
"  the  Judas  of  the  West."  There  had  been  no  bargain,  but  the 
false  charge  did  much  to  destroy  confidence  in  the  new  adminis- 
tration. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XVII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XXII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory: Missouri  Compromise,  pp.  311-318,  Monroe  Doctrine,  pp. 
318-320. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  IV,  ch. 
XXXIX  ;  V,  ch.  XLI. 

Turner,  F.  J.,  Rise  of  the  New  West,  chs.  X-XI. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  Coolidge,  A.  C,  The  United  States 
as  a  World  Power,  ch.  V;  Foster,  John  W.,  A  Century  of  American 
Diplomacy,  ch.  XII. 

2.  The  Period  of  Personal  Politics.  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political 
Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  III. 


314  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

3.  The  Purchase  of  Florida.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of 
American  Expansion,  ch.  Ill  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  Territorial  Growth  of 
the  United  States,  ch.  IV. 

4.  James  Monroe.  Gilman,  D.  C,  James  Monroe  (American 
Statesmen  Series). 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  VII. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  XVIII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Missouri  Compromise.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  ch.  VIII  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  V, 
pp.  147-153. 

2.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American 
History,  ch.  IX  ;    Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  V,  pp.  133-143. 

3.  Lafayette's  Visit.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  His- 
tory, ch.  X  ;   Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  V,  pp.  180-191. 

4.  James  Monroe.     Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  I,  ch.  V. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
NEW    SYSTEMS    OF    TRANSPORTATION 

Roads  in  Colonial  Days.  One  writer  has  said  that  the 
civilization  of  a  country  can  be  measured  by  the  excellence  of  its 
roads.  Judged  by  this  standard,  our  country  would  have  made 
a  poor  showing  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  There  was  too 
much  other  work  to  be  done  for  the  colonists  to  spend  many 
hours  in  road  building.  The  early  roads  were  generally  Indian 
trails,  widened  first  to  form  a  bridle  path,  later  a  wagon  road. 
If  the  trail  ran  through  a  swamp,  trees  would  be  felled  and  a 
"  corduroy  "  road  built  by  laying  the  trunks  side  by  side.  With 
the  advent  of  the  sawmill  came  the  plank  roads ;  and  these  in 
turn  were  followed  by  the  pikes,  or  roads  covered  with  broken 
stone.  The  crude  roads  of  early  days  were  built  by  the  local 
governments,  —  by  the  towns  in  New  England,  the  townships 
in  the  Middle  states,  and  the  counties  at  the  South. 

Turnpikes  —  The  National  Road.  After  the  Revolution,  the 
increase  in  population  and  trade  led  to  a  demand  for  better 
roads  than  these  local  governments  could  build.  The  states  soon 
began  to  charter  "  turnpike  "  companies,  which  were  authorized 
to  construct  roads  and  to  collect  charges  or  tolls  from  the 
people  who  used  them.  At  the  points  where  tolls  were  collected, 
a  gate  was  placed  across  the  road.  This  gate  consisted  of  a  pole 
armed  with  pikes,  so  hung  as  to  turn  upon  a  post ;  hence  the  toll 
road  was  called  a  turnpike.  Many  turnpikes  were  built  during 
the  period  from  1790  to  1812,  especially  in  New  England  and  the 
Middle  states. 

The  most  celebrated  turnpike  was  not  built  by  a  private 
company,  but  by  the  United  States  government  itself.  This 
"  National  Pike "  or  Cumberland  Road  was  begun  during 
Jefferson's  administration,  in  order  to  open  up  the  public  lands 
in  Ohio  and  the  West.   Starting  at  Cumberland,  Maryland,  the 

315 


316 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


National  Road  ran  westward,  following  for  part  of  the  distance 
Braddock's  old  military  route,  until  it  reached  the  Ohio  River  at 
Wheeling,  West  Virginia.  Along  this  pike  thousands  of  west- 
bound settlers  traveled  by  stagecoach  or  in  large  canvas-covered 
wagons,  often  drawn  by  eight  or  ten  horses.  On  reaching  the 
Ohio  River,  the  "  movers  "  usually  boarded  a  steamboat  for 
their  future  homes  in  the  West.  The  National  Road  was  grad- 
ually extended  through  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  Indianapolis, 
Indiana,  until  finally  it  came  to  an  end  at  Vandalia,  Illinois.  By 
this  time  (1838)  the  railroad  had  been  introduced,  and  travelers 
preferred  this  quicker  and  cheaper  means  of  transportation. 


».      ILLINOI 


scale:  of  statute  miles 


The  Route  of  the  National  Road,  1812  1840 

The  Cumberland  Road  to  Wheeling  was  completed  in  1820  ;  from  Wheeling  to 
Columbus,  1835;  from  Columbus  to  Terre  Haute,  1840.  The  road  from  Terre 
Haute  to  Vandalia  had  been  finished  in  1836. 


n 


River  Trade  and  the  Steamboat.  The  invention  of  the 
steamboat  in  1807,  and  its  introduction  on  the  Ohio  four  years 
later,  made  the  rivers  more  important  highways  of  commerce 
than  ever  before.  After  many  attempts  and  failures,  Robert 
Fulton  at  last  solved  the  problem  of  applying  steam  to  boats 
as  a  motive  power.  Fulton  named  his  steamboat  the  Clermont, 
but  the  people  who  gathered  at  New  York  to  witness  its  trial  trip 
up  the  Hudson  called  it  Fulton's  Folly.  Their  ridicule  gave  way 
to  applause  when  the  Clermont  steamed  up  to  Albany,  making 
the  journey  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  thirty-two  hours. 

This  invention  was  of  vast  importance  in  the  peopling  of  the 
West.  Up  to  this  time,  the  commerce  between  New  Orleans  and 
the  upper  country  had  been  carried  in  flatboats  or  barges.  In 
1811  the  first  steamboat  passed  down  the  Mississippi  from 
Pittsburgh  to  New  Orleans ;  and  seven  years  later,  the  Walk- 


NEW   SYSTEMS    OF   TRANSPORTATION 


317 


in-the-Water  made  a  voyage  from  Buffalo  to  Detroit.  The 
great  network  of  western  rivers  and  lakes  was  soon  covered  with 
steam-driven  craft  that  could  defy  wind  and  current.  The 
cumbersome  flatboat  used  to  make  the  trip  from  Louisville  to 
New  Orleans  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days,  while  the  return  trip 
against  the  swift  current  took  at  least  ninety  days.  The  steam- 
boat with  its  powerful  paddle  wheels  made  the  trip  down  the 
river  in  seven  days,  the  return  trip  in  sixteen  days. 


The  Clermont 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 


The  exact  reproduction  of  Fulton's  Clermont  passing  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors' 
Monument,  New  York  City,  in  the  Hudson-Fulton  Celebration,  1909. 


Even  in  the  days  of  the  flatboat,  the  trade  on  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributaries  was  large  ;  with  the  coming  of  the  steamboat, 
that  trade  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Towns  like  Pittsburgh, 
Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and  above  all  New  Orleans,  grew  steadily 
in  population.  By  1825  the  steamboat  had  passed  all  com- 
petitors, and  was  carrying  sixty  per  cent  of  the  freight  to  New 
Orleans.  The  spread  of  the  cotton  region  in  the  Southwest  in- 
creased the  demand  for  food  products  just  at  the  time  when  the 
steamboat  made  it  possible  for  the  West  to  supply  this  demand. 
Thus  by  giving  the  frontier  settlers  access  to  the  markets  of  the 


318 


THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 


South  and  the  East,  the  steamboat   promoted  the  westward 
movement. 

Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal,  1825.  As  early  as  1772,  George 
Washington  pointed  out  the  benefits  that  would  result  from 
building  canals  and  improving  our  system  of  river  transporta- 
tion. He  was  especially  anxious  to  have  the  Atlantic  coast 
section  connected  by  a  waterway  with  the  region  west  of  the 

Allegheny  Mountains.  Not 
until  twenty-six  years  after 
Washington's  death  was  this 
finally  accomplished.  It  was 
a  great  day  for  New  York 
state  and  for  the  entire 
country  when  Governor 
Clinton  dedicated  the  Erie 
Canal,  connecting  the  Hud- 
son River  near  Albany  with 
Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo.  The 
canal  followed  the  Mohawk 
Valley  to  Rome,  New  York, 
and  entered  Lake  Erie  by 
theTonawandaand  Niagara 
rivers.  It  was  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three  miles 
long,  and  had  cost  the  state 
of  New  York  nearly  eight 
million  dollars. 

A  New  Highway  for  Com- 
merce. The  produce  of  the 
West  at  once  poured  down  this  new  channel  to  the  ocean.  Be- 
fore the  canal  was  built,  it  cost  $100,  and  required  twenty  days, 
to  transport  a  ton  of  wheat  from  Buffalo  to  New  York  City.  The 
canal  reduced  the  cost  to  $20,  and  the  time  to  eight  days.  Within 
a  year,  thousands  of  boats  laden  with  wheat,  lumber,  furs,  and 
other  products  of  the  West,  passed  down  this  highway  to  the 
markets  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  canal  also  made  it  easy 
for  the  western  settler  to  get  the  products  of  the  East.  It  was  no 


The  Erie  Canal,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

The  water  was  drained  off  in  winter, 
and  the  boats  tied  to  the  towpath  as 
shown  here,  at  the  right. 

In  1825  the  canal  was  but  42  feet  wide 
and  4  feet  deep,  sufficient  to  float  a 
barge  or  a  house  boat  carrying  30  tons 
of  freight. 


NEW   SYSTEMS   OF   TRANSPORTATION 


319 


uncommon  sight  to  see  fifty  boats  starting  from  Albany  day 
after  day,  carrying  salt,  furniture,  farming  tools,  and  other 
supplies  for  the  western  pioneer. 

Thus  the  new  highway  formed  a  bond  of  union  between  the 
West  and  the  East.  It  helped  to  people  the  West,  which  could 
now  count  on  markets  and  communication  with  the  East.  The 
state  of  New  York  was  soon  reaping  a  rich  harvest  of  trade. 
Wherever  the  canal  touched  a  waterway,  a  thriving  city  sprang 
up,  as  at  Syracuse,  Rochester,  and  Utica.  The  terminals  of  the 
canal,  Buffalo  and  Al- 
bany, grew  still  more 
rapidly.  Most  impor- 
tant of  all,  the  opening 
of  this  waterway  made 
New  York  City  the 
commercial  center  of 
the  United  States. 

Other  States  Con- 
struct Canals.  Phila- 
delphia feared  that  the 
opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal  would  mean  the 
loss  of  her  western 
trade.  So  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania  began  to 
construct    a   series    of 

canals  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh,  finally  completed  in 
1834.  Leaving  Philadelphia,  the  journey  to  the  Susquehanna 
River  was  made  by  a  horse  railroad ;  then  by  a  canal  along  the 
Susquehanna  and  Juanita  rivers  to  Hollidaysburg,  and  over  the 
mountains  by  the  Allegheny  Portage  Railroad  to  Johnstown; 
thence  by  canal  to  Pittsburgh. 

Other  states  hastened  to  follow  the  example  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania.  The  Miami  Canal  was  built  from  Cincinnati 
to  Dayton,  and  the  Ohio  Canal  connected  Lake  Erie  with  the 
Ohio  River  along  the  route  first  suggested  by  Washington. 
Indiana  joined  hands  with  Ohio  to  construct  the  Wabash  and 


D7  QADO.  IU.1  PfiEa  &STO  I.VdttL  SJ'AIfJISM'a, 

From  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh, 

THROUGH  IN  3!  DAYS: 

•*#D  BY STC**t  BOATS.  CAHIIYI.\C   TH C  t.YITCD  STATCS    HlUU 

From  PITTSBURGH  Jo  LOUISVILLE. 


Starts  every  morning,  from  the  corner  ot  Broad  a  Race  St. 

A  Railroad  Poster,  1837 


320 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


Transportation  Competition  for  the  Western  Trade 

Showing  the  routes  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal,  and  the  Erie  Canal.  The  Erie  Canal  system,  with  its  water-level  route, 
secured  the  larger  share  of  western  trade. 

Erie  Canal.  So  vigorously  was  the  work  carried  on  that,  by 
1830,  fourteen  hundred  miles  of  canals  had  been  built  and  two 
thousand  miles  were  under  construction.  Indeed,  many  states 
and  cities  invested  too  heavily  in  these  enterprises.  Canal 
building  was  costly,  the  returns  from  tolls  were  slow  and  un- 
certain. Then,  too,  a  dangerous  competitor  of  the  canals  had 
already  made  its  appearance. 

The  Steam  Railroad.  The  year  after  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  an  English  engineer,  George  Stephenson,  demonstrated 
to  the  world  the  possibilities  of  the  steam  railroad.  Since  the 
Erie  Canal  threatened  Baltimore's  western  trade,  the  merchants 
of  that  city  planned  to  build  a  railroad  across  the  mountains  to 


NEW  SYSTEMS   OF   TRANSPORTATION  321 

the  Ohio  River.  An  impressive  ceremony  took  place  at  Baltimore 
on  July  4,  1828,  when  the  venerable  Charles  Carroll  placed  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  first  of 
the  iron  bands  between  East  and  West.  Then  ninety-three  years 
of  age,  Charles  Carroll  belonged  to  the  past ;  but  he  saw  clearly 
into  the  future  when  he  said  :  "I  consider  this  among  the  greatest 
acts  of  my  life,  second  only  to  that  of  signing  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

This  early  railway  was  a  crude  affair.  Its  "  strap  rails  "  were 
wooden  beams  fastened  together  at  the  ends,  with  a  flat  strip 
of  iron  spiked  to  the  top  of  the  beam.  Along  thirteen  miles  of 
this  track,  Peter  Cooper's  locomotive,  the  Tom  Thumb,  made  its 
trial  trip  in  about  one  hour.  An  exciting  race  took  place  on  the 
double  track  near  Baltimore  between  the  Tom  Thumb  and  a 
horse  car.  As  the  horse  grew  tired,  the  locomotive  forged  slowly 
ahead.  Finally  a  pulley  slipped  off  the  engine,  and  the  horse  won 
the  race  after  all.  Still  the  trial  trip  was  on  the  whole  a  success, 
the  locomotive  was  soon  improved,  and  larger  cars  were  built 
for  passengers  and  freight.  By  the  year  1837,  Philadelphia  was 
connected  with  Baltimore  and  New  York  by  rail.  Lines  were 
soon  afterwards  completed  from  Boston  and  New  York  to 
Albany,  and  from  Albany  west  to  Buffalo.  East  and  West 
were  then  joined  by  rail  as  well  as  by  the  Erie  Canal.  The 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  had  climbed  over  the  mountains 
by  1853  to  Wheeling,  West  Virginia,  where  a  junction  was  made 
with  Ohio  River  steamboats  running  north  and  south.  Phila- 
delphia did  not  propose  to  be  outrun  by  New  York  in  the  race 
for  western  trade. 

Development  of  Railway  Transportation.  Just  as  the  horse  car 
gave  way  to  the  locomotive,  so  the  canal  was  finally  vanquished 
by  the  railroad.  Canal  traffic  was  safe  and  cheap,  but  slow  and 
closed  by  ice  during  several  months  of  each  year.  The  first  rail- 
ways were  built  to  connect  waterways,  or  to  freight  the  produce 
of  the  interior  to  the  seaports.  The  railways  soon  began  to 
parallel  the  canals,  which  declined  in  importance  as  railway 
mileage  steadily  increased.  By  1840,  there  were  nearly  three 
thousand  miles  of  railways  in  the  United  States.    Roads  were 


322 


THE   RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


built  east  and  west,  crossing  mountains  and  uniting  parts  of  the 
country  before  separated.  They  carried  thousands  of  settlers 
to  their  new  homes  in  the  West,  and  hastened  the  development 
of  the  country's  resources.  If  immigration  by  steam  was  less 
picturesque  than  by  wagon,  it  was  also  cheaper  and  quicker. 
Thomas  Jefferson  said  in  1803  that  it  would  be  a  thousand  years 
before  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  would  be  fully  settled. 


A 

S«=AUk£JL 

1, 

s 

1 

v-;  ■■;i,.:r::^:-,:  ■.■:".; *fP?r>        :    ■                        -  *>   ft                ' 

Courtesy  of  the  New  York  Central  Lines. 

The  Engine,  DeWitt  Clinton,  and  Passenger  Coaches 

This  was  the  first  train  to  operate  in  the  state  of  New  York,  running  from 
Albany  to  Schenectady,  August  9,  1831. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  canals  and  railroads,  his  prediction  might 
have  come  true. 

The  National  Government  and  Internal  Improvements.  If 
President  John  Quincy  Adams  could  have  had  his  way  in  1824, 
the  United  States  would  to-day  own  the  canals  and  railways,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  wagon  roads  of  the  country.  Presidents 
Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe  had  opposed  the  construction 
of  these  internal  improvements  by  the  national  government, 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  not  expressly  authorized  by  the 
constitution.  But  John  Quincy  Adams  was  a  President  of  broad 
national  views,  who  wanted  Congress  to  spend  millions  in 
constructing  roads,   canals,   and  railways.      Like  his  father. 


NEW   SYSTEMS   OF   TRANSPORTATION  323 

President  Adams  was  a  man  of  sterling  worth,  but  lacking  in  all 
the  qualities  of  popular  leadership.  He  failed  to  convince 
Congress  or  the  country  at  large  that  the  national  government 
should  undertake  these  improvements.  One  reason  for  this  was 
the  strong  constitutional  objection,  that  the  national  govern- 
ment had  no  such  authority.  Another  was  the  opposition  of 
the  South.  Itself  an  agricultural  section,  the  South  was  unwilling 
to  bear  a  heavy  burden  of  taxes  in  order  to  build  up  a  rival 
agricultural  section  in  the  West.  Then,  too,  the  states  and  cities 
of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  were  already  constructing  canals  and 
railways,  each  community  striving  to  secure  the  trade  of  the 
West  for  its  own  benefit.  So  the  rivalry  of  the  different  sections 
prevented  the  adoption  of  the  President's  plan  for  a  national 
system  of  public  improvements. 

Opposition  to  the  Protective  Tariff.  Our  protective  tariff 
policy  was  beginning  to  create  an  unfriendly  feeling  between 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  tariff  act  passed  after  the 
War  of  1812  was  intended  to  protect  our  infant  industries 
from  foreign  competition.  From  time  to  time,  tariff  rates  were 
increased  to  give  further  protection ;  meanwhile,  American 
manufactures  were  making  great  strides.  The  stronghold  of 
protection  was  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  where 
manufacturing  flourished.  The  agricultural  South  opposed 
protection ;  the  planters  were  unwilling  to  pay  higher  prices  for 
their  goods  in  order  to  encourage  New  England's  factories.  At 
last,  in  1828,  Congress  passed  a  tariff  measure  displeasing  to 
both  North  and  South,  —  so  much  so,  that  it  was  called  the 
"  Tariff  of  Abominations."  There  were  protests  on  all  sides 
against  this  act,  especially  from  the  South  which  could  not  hope 
to  set  up  factories  on  account  of  its  slave  labor.  From  this 
time  on,  the  tariff  became  more  than  ever  a  sectional  question, 
and  South  Carolina  came  forward  as  the  champion  of  southern 
opposition  to  the  policy  of  protection. 

Formation  of  New  Political  Parties.  Throughout  his  term  of 
office,  President  Adams  was  the  object  of  the  most  bitter  political 
attacks  ever  made  upon  any  President.  Chosen  by  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  a  contest  with  General  Jackson  who  had 


324  THE    RISE    OF  AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

received  more  electoral  votes,  Adams  was  unpopular  with  the 
country  at  large ;  while  Jackson,  with  his  record  at  New  Orleans 
and  in  Florida,  was  the  hero  of  the  hour.  Immediately  after  his 
defeat  in  1824,  Jackson  announced  that  he  would  be  a  candidate 
at  the  next  presidential  election.  President  Adams  favored  a 
protective  tariff,  a  national  bank,  and  internal  improvements 
by  the  national  government.  General  Jackson  rallied  to  his 
standard  the  men  opposed  to  this  program,  who  believed  in  a 
strict  construction  of  the  Constitution. 

New  political  parties  were  now  formed ;  those  who  supported 
Adams  and  Clay  were  known  as  National  Republicans,  while  the 
Jackson  men  called  themselves  Democratic  Republicans.  More 
statesman  than  politician,  President  Adams  lost  support  by 
refusing  to  appoint  his  friends  to  office.  One  of  them,  an  editor 
named  Binns,  told  the  President  that  he  might  be  right  in  this 
policy,  but  that  he  could  not  hope  to  be  reelected.  Although 
he  was  a  man  of  the  highest  ideals,  the  people  did  not  under- 
stand Adams ;  and  they  turned  instinctively  to  the  leader 
whom  they  felt  to  be  one  of  themselves. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1828.  As  early  as  October, 
1825,  the  legislature  of  Tennessee  had  nominated  Jackson  for 
the  presidential  election  of  1828.  During  the  next  three  years 
shrewd  political  leaders  managed  his  campaign.  Local  Jackson 
committees  were  everywhere  organized,  hundreds  of  articles 
were  written  for  the  press,  and  Jackson's  military  record  was 
again  spread  before  the  people.  That  the  hero  of  New  Orleans 
had  been  the  popular  choice  in  1824,  cheated  out  of  the  Pres- 
idency by  a  corrupt  bargain,  was  repeated  time  and  again  with 
telling  effect.  The  result  of  the  long  and  bitter  campaign  was  a 
sweeping  victory  for  Jackson.  Every  electoral  vote  west  of  the 
Alleghenies  was  cast  for  "  Old  Hickory."  The  democratic 
spirit  which  ruled  the  frontier  was  at  last  in  control  of  the 
government. 


NEW   SYSTEMS   OF   TRANSPORTATION  325 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XXV. 
McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  III,  ch. 

XXII  ;  V,  chs.  XLI-XLII,  XLIV. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  V. 
Turner,  F.  J.,  Rise  of  the  New  West,  chs.  XIII,  XVII. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  Erie   Canal.     Bogart,   E.   L.,    Economic    History  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  XV. 

2.  Railroads  and  Canals.  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  ch.  VII-VIII  ;  Raper,  C.  L.,  Railway  Trans- 
portation, ch.  XII. 


REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Drake,  S.  A.,  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  153-168,  198-214. 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  XI. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  XX,  XXIV. 
Wright,  CD.,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXI. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  National  Road.  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F., 
Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  chs.  XVIII-XIX  ;  Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories 
from  Our  History,  chs.  XXI-XXII,  XXV. 

2.  The  Erie  Canal.  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F.,  Story  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  ch.  XX  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VI, 
pp.  17-19  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp. 
215-220  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch. 
XXII. 

3.  Early  Steamboats.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  A  New  Nation,  pp.  95- 
105  ;  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  ch.  V  ;  Faris, 
J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  chs.  XXXII-XXXV  ;  Great 
Epochs  in  American  History,  IV,  pp.  186-196  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  Amer- 
ican Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  221-228  ;  Wright,  H.  C,  American 
Progress,  ch.  V. 


326  THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 

4.  The  Steam  Railroad.  Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  His- 
tory, chs.  XXXVI-XXXVIII,  XL-XLI  ;  Great  Epochs  in  Amer- 
ican History,  VII,  pp.  12-16  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  American  Inventions 
and  Inventors,  pp.  221-228  ;  Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American  Fron- 
tier, ch.  XIX  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People, 
ch.  XXIII  ;  Wright,  H.  C,  American  Progress,  ch.  X. 


Courtesy  of  the  New  York  Central  Lines. 

The  DeWitt  Clinton  and  the  Modern  Pacific  Type  Locomotive 


CHAPTER   XXVI 


JACKSONIAN   DEMOCRACY 

Jacksonian  Democracy.  With  Jackson  began  a  new  era  in 
American  politics.  His  was  the  age  of  "  Jacksonian  Democracy," 
the  rule  of  the  people.  Former  Presidents,  even  Jefferson  himself, 
had  been  chosen  from  the  more  learned,  aristocratic  class.  In 
the  early  years  of  the  Repub- 
lic it  was  understood  that 
this  favored  class  should 
take  the  lead  in  managing 
public  affairs,  while  the 
masses  were  to  follow  and 
obey.  But  with  the  election 
of  Jackson,  the  people  came 
into  their  own.  Himself  a 
sturdy  frontiersman  who 
could  not  spell  correctly  or 
write  good  English,  "  Old 
Hickory  "  was  one  of  the 
plain  common  people ;  and 
they  gave  him  their  confi- 
dence and  trust  more  fully 
than  to  any  other  President. 
Victor  in  two  Indian  cam- 
paigns and  hero  of  New 
Orleans,  men  admired  Jack- 


Andrew  Jackson 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Thomas 
Sully  in  the  Historical  Society  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Philadelphia. 


son  for  his  proven  courage,  his  energy  and  directness  in  accom- 
plishing results,  for  his  honest  sincerity  of  purpose,  his  warm, 
sympathetic  heart.  Perhaps,  too,  they  loved  him  for  his  very 
faults,  —  the  hasty  judgments  that  sometimes  led  him  astray, 
the  imperious  will  that  could  brook  no  opposition,  the  quick 
temper  which  involved  him  in  many  quarrels  and  not  a  few  duels. 

327 


328  THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

Jackson's  Inauguration,  March  4, 1829.  Washington  was  the 
scene  of  wild  enthusiasm  on  the  day  of  Jackson's  inauguration. 
The  streets  were  filled  with  a  motley  throng  of  office  seekers, 
friends,  and  visitors,  all  shouting  and  hurrahing  for  the  "old 
hero."  It  was  the  people's  day  and  the  people's  President.  "A 
monstrous  crowd  of  people  is  in  the  city,"  wrote  Webster.  "  I 
never  saw  anything  like  it  before.  Persons  have  come  five 
hundred  miles  to  see  General  Jackson,  and  they  really  seem  to 
think  that  the  country  is  rescued  from  some  dreadful  danger." 
Confusion  and  disorder  marred  the  reception  at  the  White 
House.  In  their  eagerness  to  see  the  President,  the  crowd  upset 
the  pails  of  orange  punch,  broke  the  glasses,  and  stood  with 
muddy  boots  on  the  satin-covered  chairs.  At  one  time  the 
crush  around  Jackson  was  so  great  that  he  was  in  danger  of 
being  hurt ;  but  prudent  persons  carried  tubs  and  buckets  filled 
with  punch  out  on  the  lawn,  the  windows  were  thrown  open, 
and  the  mob  made  a  quick  exit. 

The  Spoils  System.  Worse  than  the  scramble  for  refresh- 
ments was  the  scramble  for  office.  Hundreds  of  party  workers 
remained  after  the  inauguration,  eager  to  claim  their  expected 
reward.  They  swarmed  "  a  great  multitude,"  wrote  Webster, 
"  too  many  to  be  fed  without  a  miracle."  Until  Jackson's  time, 
few  office  holders  had  been  removed  for  party  reasons.  In 
forty  years,  the  six  Presidents  had  made  only  seventy-four 
removals.  But  the  new  President  acted  on  the  maxim,  "  To  the 
victor  belong  the  spoils."  Within  a  year,  hundreds  of  post- 
masters, customs  officials,  clerks,  and  other  federal  officers 
were  dismissed  to  make  room  for  Jackson  men.  In  this  way 
the  vicious  Spoils  System  was  introduced  into  our  national 
administration,  a  system  which  makes  party  loyalty,  rather  than 
fitness,  the  chief  qualification  for  office.  For  more  than  half  a 
century,  succeeding  Presidents  followed  the  example  set  by 
Jackson,  until  at  last  public  opinion  compelled  the  adoption  of 
Civil  Service  Reform. 

The  South  Opposes  the  Tariff.  When  Jackson  took  office, 
the  South  was  a  unit  against  the  high  tariff  duties  intended  to 
protect  American  industries.  The  planters  were  especially  bitter 


JACKSONIAN  democracy 


329 


over  the  tariff  act  of  1828,  which  they  denounced  as  an  outrage. 
In  earlier  years,  southern  leaders  had  favored  a  protective  tariff, 
hoping  that  cotton  factories  might  be  built  at  the  South.  But 
the  slave  lacked  the  intelligence  and  skill  to  operate  machinery  ; 
moreover,  the  capital  needed  for  factories  was  already  invested 
in  plantations  and  slaves.  So  the  South  remained  an  agricultural 
section,  and  her  people 
came  to  regard  the  tariff 
as  an  unjust  tax  levied 
upon  southern  industry 
lor  trie  benefit  ot  the 
North.  Had  it  not  been 
for  the  high  tariff  duties, 
the  southern  planter 
could  have  purchased 
cotton  and  woolen  goods 
made  in  Europe  at  lower 
prices  than  he  paid  for 
the  product  of  New  Eng- 
land's looms. 

South  Carolina  took 
the  lead  in  opposing  the 
"  tariff  of  abominations." 
Her  foremost  statesman, 
John  C.  Calhoun,  had 
favored  a  strong  national 
policy  up  to  this  time  ;  but  he  now  joined  the  state  rights  party 
in  the  movement  against  the  protective  tariff.  In  the  very 
year  that  he  was  elected  Vice  President  of  the  United  States 
(1828),  Calhoun  wrote  for  the  legislature  of  his  state  a  paper 
known  as  the  South  Carolina  Exposition.  This  revived  the 
doctrine  of  nullification,  first  put  forward  in  the  famous  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  Resolutions.  How  could  a  state  protect  itself 
against  a  law  of  Congress  that  it  knew  to  be  harmful,  and  be- 
lieved to  be  unconstitutional?  Calhoun's  answer  was,  that  any 
state  might  declare  such  a  law  null  and  void,  and  refuse  to 
obey  it.     The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  adopted  Calhoun's 


John  C.  Calhoun 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collec- 
tion, the  War  Department,  Washington. 


330 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


views,  and  passed  resolutions  denouncing  the  tariff  as  unconsti- 
tutional, as  an  abuse  of  power,  and  a  menace  to  the  welfare  of 
South  Carolina. 

The  Webster-Hayne  Debate.  Early  in  the  year  1830,  the 
question  of  nullification  was  argued  before  the  United  States 
Senate  in  the  greatest  debate  ever  held  in  Congress.    On  this 

occasion,  Senator  Robert 
Hayne  of  South  Carolina 
was  the  champion  of  the 
South  Carolina  idea.  Hayne 
declared  that  if  Congress 
passed  a  law  which  violated 
state  rights,  "  any  state 
would  be  justified,  when  her 
solemn  protest  failed  of 
effect,  in  resisting  the  efforts 
of  the  federal  government 
to  execute  the  measure." 
Hayne  pointed  to  the  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentucky  Reso- 
lutions as  his  authority  for 
this  doctrine,  resolutions 
drafted  by  "  the  fathers  of 
the  faith,  maintained  by 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  in 
the  worst  of  times." 
Northern  men  felt  that  the  doctrine  of  nullification  threatened 
the  very  existence  of  the  Union.  Anxiously  they  looked  to  the 
speaker  who  was  to  reply  to  Hayne.  For  this  task  no  man  in 
America  was  so  well  fitted  as  Daniel  Webster  of  Massachusetts, 
the  ablest  constitutional  lawyer  of  his  day  and  the  greatest  of 
American  orators.  All  of  Webster's  splendid  powers  of  logic  and 
eloquence  were  drawn  upon  in  the  famous  speech  which  won  for 
him  the  title,  "  Defender  of  the  Constitution." 

Webster's  Argument  for  Union.  Webster  denied  that  a 
state  might  annul  a  law  of  Congress  and  refuse  to  obey  it.  This 
would  make  the  Union  "  a  rope  of  sand."    There  can  be  no 


Daniel  Webster 

From  the  original  portrait  by  Alexan- 
der Pope  in  the  Administration  Building, 
Dartmouth  College. 


JACKSONIAN   DEMOCRACY  331 

middle  course  "  between  submission  to  the  laws  on  the  one 
hand,  and  open  resistance,  which  is  revolution  or  rebellion,  on 
the  other."  The  Union  is  the  agent,  not  of  the  states,  but  of  the 
people.  The  national  constitution  and  government  "  were  made 
for  the  people,  made  by  the  people,  and  answerable  to  the 
people."  Webster  heaped  ridicule  on  the  idea  that  the  United 
States  was  "  servant  of  four  and  twenty  masters,  of  different 
wills  and  different  purposes,  and  yet  bound  to  obey  all.  .  .  . 
It  so  happens  that  at  the  very  moment  when  South  Carolina 
resolves  that  the  tariff  laws  are  unconstitutional,  Pennsylvania 
and  Kentucky  resolve  exactly  the  reverse.  .  .  .  Does  not 
this  approach  absurdity?"  Instead  of  such  an  absurd  plan, 
"  the  people,  in  their  constitution,  have  provided  the  means  of 
settling  questions  of  constitutional  law,  namely,  through  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States." 

Nullification,  said  Webster,  meant  disunion ;  and  in  the 
grandest  flight  of  eloquence  ever  heard  in  this  country,  Webster 
pleaded  for  the  Union.  For  himself,  at  least,  there  should  be 
"  no  cool  weighing  of  the  chances  of  preserving  liberty,  when  the 
bonds  that  unite  us  together  shall  be  broken  asunder";  no 
hanging  over  "  the  precipice  of  disunion  in  the  effort  to  fathom 
the  depth  of  the  abyss  below."  That  for  which  he  lived  should  be 
"  Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable !  " 

"The  Federal  Union:  It  Must  be  Preserved."  Webster's 
logic  did  not  convince  the  men  of  South  Carolina.  They  deter- 
mined to  seek  the  aid  of  President  Jackson,  who  was  thought 
to  be  against  high  tariff  duties.  What  a  victory  for  the  nullifiers 
if  Old  Hickory  gave  them  his  support !  A  great  dinner  was 
arranged  in  celebration  of  Jefferson's  birthday.  The  President 
was  the  chief  guest,  and  "  State  Rights  "  the  favorite  toast  of 
the  evening.  When  President  Jackson  was  called  upon,  imagine 
the  dismay  of  the  nullifiers!  His  toast  was:  "The  Federal 
Union :  it  must  be  preserved  !  " 

South  Carolina  and  Nullification.  Congress  passed  a  new 
tariff  act  in  1832  which  lowered  the  duties,  but  not  enough  to 
please  the  South.  South  Carolina  then  determined  to  put  her 
nullification  theory  into  practice.    Delegates  were  elected  to  a 


332 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 


state  convention,  which  met  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina.  This 
convention  declared  that  the  tariff  acts  passed  by  Congress  were 
"  null,  void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  the  state,  its  officers  or 
citizens."  Payment  of  tariff  duties  was  forbidden.  In  case  the 
federal  government  attempted  to  collect  the  duties  by  force, 
South  Carolina  would  secede  from  the  Union,  and  "  proceed  to 

organize  a  separate  govern- 
ment." 

The  old  military  chieftain 
in  the  White  House  was 
not  slow  to  take  up  the 
gauntlet.  Six  days  later 
came  Jackson's  answer,  a 
ringing  proclamation  to  the 
people  of  South  Carolina. 
The  President  declared  that 
the  doctrine  of  nullification 
was  opposed  to  the  very 
existence  of  the  Union,  and 
"  destructive  of  the  great 
object  for  which  it  was 
formed."  In  earnest  words, 
he  warned  the  people  of 
South  Carolina  of  the  dan- 
ger that  they  would  incur 
by  resisting  the  collection 
of  the  tariff  duties.  As  chief  executive  of  the  nation,  he  would 
enforce  the  laws  in  every  part  of  the  Union.  South  Carolina 
and  every  other  state  must  obey  them.  To  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  South  Carolina,  Jackson  spoke  still  more  plainly. 
"  Please  give  my  compliments  to  my  friends  in  your  state,  and 
say  to  them  that  if  a  single  drop  of  blood  shall  be  shed  there  in 
opposition  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  I  will  hang  the 
first  man  I  lay  my  hands  on  engaged  in  such  treasonable  conduct 
upon  the  first  tree  I  can  reach. "\ 

Clay's  Compromise  Tariff,  1833.     At  the  President's  request, 
Congress  passed  a  law  giving  him  full  power  to  employ  the  army 


Henry  Clay 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collec- 
tion, the  War  Department,  Washington. 


JACKSONIAN   DEMOCRACY  333 

and  navy  to  collect  the  tariff  duties.  At  the  same  time,  Congress 
extended  the  olive  branch  to  South  Carolina  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
promise tariff  measure,  suggested  by  Henry  Clay.  Tariff  duties 
were  to  be  gradually  reduced,  until  by  1842  the  rate  would  be  a 
very  moderate  one.  South  Carolina  promptly  repealed  her  nul- 
lification ordinance,  and  the  contest  was  ended.  Both  sides 
claimed  the  victory,  but  it  was  really  a  drawn  battle.  The  su- 
premacy of  the  Union  had  been  maintained,  the  threatened  resist- 
ance by  a  state  defeated.  On  the  other  hand,  South  Carolina's 
action  had  compelled  Congress  to  reduce  the  tariff  duties.  The 
spirit  of  disunion  was  checked,  not  conquered.  In  Jackson's  time, 
South  Carolina  stood  alone  when  she  threatened  secession.  Thirty 
years  later,  she  was  again  to  array  herself  against  the  Union,  this 
time  on  the  issue  of  slavery ;  and  on  this  issue  her  cause  was  the 
cause  of  the  South.  Unfortunately,  the  President  of  those  later 
days,  in  the  face  of  threats  of  disunion,  failed  to  follow  Jackson's 
vigorous  example. 

Jackson's  War  on  the  United  States  Bank.  Jackson's  contest 
with  the  United  States  Bank  began  during  his  first  term.  This 
institution  had  been  chartered  in  1816,  for  a  term  of  twenty 
years.  The  national  government  owned  part  of  its  stock,  and 
deposited  its  surplus  revenue  with  the  bank.  Congress  voted 
in  1832  to  grant  the  bank  a  new  charter,  but  President  Jackson 
vetoed  the  bill.  He  declared  that  the  bank  was  unconstitutional ; 
that  it  gave  a  valuable  monopoly  to  a  few  rich  men ;  that  the 
bank  had  too  much  power  over  the  business  of  the  country, 
and  that  its  officers  meddled  in  politics. 

Clay  had  forced  the  bank  charter  through  Congress  in  order  to 
make  it  an  issue  in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1832.  He 
thought  that  if  Jackson  vetoed  the  bill,  he  could  defeat  him  on 
this  issue.  Clay  was  the  idol  of  Kentucky,  an  orator  second  only 
to  Webster,  and  a  born  leader  of  men.  He  favored  a  strong 
national  government,  and  came  forward  as  the  champion  of  the 
protective  tariff,  a  national  bank,  and  internal  improvements  at 
the  expense  of  the  nation.  But  with  all  his  splendid  gifts,  Clay 
was  no  match  for  Old  Hickory  in  a  political  contest.  The 
election  resulted  in  an  overwhelming  triumph  for  Jackson  and 


334  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

the  Democratic  party.  Van  Buren,  already  Jackson's  choice 
as  his  successor  four  years  later,  became  Vice  President. 

Withdrawal  of  the  Government  Deposits.  Jackson's  victory 
in  the  election  meant  to  him  that  his  veto  was  approved  by  the 
voice  of  the  people.  He  determined  to  destroy  the  bank  at  once 
by  depositing  no  more  government  funds  with  the  hated 
monopoly.  He  ordered  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  place 
the  public  funds  in  various  state  banks  throughout  the  country, 
called  by  his  enemies  the  "pet  banks."  The  deposits  already 
held  by  the  United  States  Bank  were  to  be  drawn  on  for  current 
expenses,  so  that  the  bank  would  sooil  hold  no  money  belonging 
to  the  government. 

The  loss  of  the  government  deposits  spelled  ruin  for  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States.  Jackson's  policy  compelled  it  to  call 
in  its  loans,  that  is,  to  ask  the  men  who  had  borrowed  money  to 
repay  it  at  once.  Soon  the  business  world  was  face  to  face  with  a 
money  famine.  Building  operations  stopped  in  the  cities,  facto- 
ries closed  their  doors,  and  thousands  of  workingmen  were  thrown 
out  of  employment.  Business  men  all  over  the  country  begged 
Congress  to  revoke  Jackson's  order,  committees  besieged  the 
President  with  protests,  and  the  Senate  passed  resolutions 
censuring  him  for  his  action.  But  Jackson  stood  firm,  protests 
and  censure  only  making  him  more  determined  than  ever.  The 
strongest  of  his  enemies  was  at  last  overthrown ;  and  soon 
afterwards  Jackson  retired  to  the  Hermitage,  leaving  his  suc- 
cessor to  face  the  dark  days  that  were  to  follow. 

The  Panic  of  1837.  President  by  the  grace  of  Andrew  Jack- 
son, Van  Buren  declared  in  his  inaugural  address  that  he  "  would 
tread  in  the  footsteps  of  his  illustrious  predecessor."  But  his 
path  was  not  to  be  a  smooth  one,  for  he  inherited  from  his 
sponsor  the  conditions  which  brought  on  the  panic  of  1837.  Jack- 
son's war  on  the  bank  was  partly  responsible  for  this  trouble.  So 
too  was  his  Specie  Circular  of  1836,  an  order  that  required 
buyers  of  public  lands  to  pay  for  them  in  gold  or  silver  coin, 
instead  of  in  bank  paper  money.  But  the  chief  cause  was  the 
fever  of  speculation  that  spread  over  the  entire  country.  The 
states  were  plunging  into  debt  for  internal  improvements  of 


JACKSONIAN    DEMOCRACY 


335 


every  kind,  especially  canal  and  railroad  projects.  They  were 
encouraged  in  this  extravagance  by  an  unwise  act  of  Congress. 
In  January,  1835,  the  national  debt  was  paid  off ;  and  Congress 
decided  to  distribute  to  the  states,  on  the  basis  of  their  popula- 
tion, $30,000,000  of  surplus  revenue.  The  national  government 
withdrew  this  money  from  the  "  pet "  banks  where  it  had  been 
deposited,  and  paid  it  over 
to  the  states.  These  banks 
were  crippled  by  the  with- 
drawal of  the  government 
deposits ;  they  had  loaned 
out  the  money,  and  now  had 
to  call  on  their  borrowers 
to  repay. 

Speculation  in  Western 
Lands.  This  was  a  fatal 
blow  to  the  wildcat  bank- 
ing which  had  been  going  on 
for  years.  The  state  banks 
were  issuing  immense  .quan- 
tities of  paper  notes,  known 
as  wildcat  money  because  of 
its  uncertain  value.  In  the 
vaults  of  the  banks  there 
was  very  little  gold  or  silver  coin  with  which  to  redeem  their 
notes.  The  notes  circulated  only  because  the  people  had  faith 
in  the  local  bank,  and  because  the  United  States  government 
took  its  notes  in  payment  for  public  lands.  Money  so  easily 
issued  was  easy  to  borrow,  and  large  sums  were  unwisely  in- 
vested. Speculation  in  western  lands  became  the  order  of 
the  day.  Men  bought  public  lands  with  borrowed  money, 
not  for  cultivation  as  farms,  but  to  hold  for  future  sale  at 
higher  prices.  "  Boom  "  towns  sprang  up  all  over  the  West ; 
and  even  in  eastern  cities  real  estate  values  soared  at  an 
alarming  rate.  The  South,  too,  caught  the  fever.  In  1835, 
cotton  rose  to  sixteen  cents  a  pound.  The  planters  bought 
thousands  of  negroes  on  credit,  expecting  to  pay  for  them  out  of 


From,  an  old  print. 

Martin  Van  Buren 


336  THE    RISE    OP   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

the  next  cotton  crop ;  but  in  the  following  year,  cotton  fell  to 
ten  cents. 

Results  of  the  Panic.  All  the  conditions  were  ripe  for  a 
crash ;  and  the  panic  began  at  the  South  when  the  price  of  cotton 
fell.  The  New  York  banks  were  soon  obliged  to  suspend  specie 
payments,  that  is,  payments  in  coin;  and  the  banks  every- 
where followed  suit.  Since  the  national  government  would  no 
longer  accept  bank  paper  money  in  payment  for  the  public 
lands,  the  people  lost  all  confidence  in  the  wildcat  currency. 
Holders  of  these  notes  sent  them  back  in  floods  to  the  banks 
which  issued  them,  demanding  that  they  be  redeemed  in  coin. 
Unable  to  do  this,  the  banks  were  forced  to  close  their  doors, 
and  their  depositors  were  ruined.  In  the  West,  the  craze 
for  internal  improvements  at  the  expense  of  the  states  came  to  a 
sudden  end.  Several  states  went  into  bankruptcy  and  repudi- 
ated their  debts,  millions  of  which  were  owed  to  creditors  in 
Europe.    As  a  result,  our  credit  abroad  was  seriously  impaired. 

Conditions  at  home  were  even  more  alarming.  Business  all 
over  the  country  was  paralyzed,  factories  shut  down,  and  men 
tramped  the  streets  looking  for  work.  The  price  of  flour  rose  to 
eleven  dollars  a  barrel,  and  bread  riots  terrorized  New  York  and 
other  cities.  Speculation  had  sown  the  wind,  and  the  people 
were  reaping  the  whirlwind.  The  country  laid  the  blame  for  the 
panic  on  the  Specie  Circular,  and  there  were  loud  demands  for 
its  repeal.  This  Van  Buren  refused,  for  he  was  a  firm  believer 
in  Jackson's  policies.  Then  too,  he  realized  that  the  panic  was 
really  the  result  of  extravagance  and  speculation.  Only  time  and 
suffering  could  remedy  the  mischief.  After  six  months  of  terrible 
distress,  the  panic  spent  its  force.  By  degrees  the  country 
recovered,  but  public  confidence  in  the  new  administration  was 
destroyed. 

The  Independent  Treasury  System.  One  result  of  the  panic 
was  to  prove  that  in  order  to  circulate  at  par,  paper  money  must 
have  something  of  real  value  back  of  it,  such  as  gold  or  silver 
coin,  or  government  bonds.  Another  lesson  was  that  the  United 
States  government  ought  not  to  deposit  its  money  in  reckless 
private  banks.    At  President  Van  Buren's  suggestion,  Congress 


JACKSONIAN 


DEMOCRACY 


337 


passed  a  law  providing  that  in  the  future  our  government  should 
keep  its  money  in  its  own  vaults.  A  national  treasury  was  built 
at  Washington,  with  subtreasuries  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
country.  For  the  next  eighty  years,  our  government  kept  its 
own  surplus  funds  under  this  Independent  Treasury  System. 


The  William  Henry  Harrison  House,  Vincennes 

Harrison  served  first  under  Anthony  Wayne  in  the  Ohio  campaign  against  the 
Indians,  1791,  and  commanded  Fort  Washington,  which  is  now  Cincinnati.  As 
Governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  Harrison  fron  1800  to  1813  wielded  autocratic 
powers  fairly  in  dealing  with  Tecumseh  and  the  Indian  land  claims. 

He  built  this  house  as  the  seat  of  government  in  1804,  the  first  structure  west 
of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  built  of  burnt  brick.  A  tunnel  six  hundred  feet 
long  runs  from  the  cellar  to  the  bank  of  the  Wabash  River  as  a  possible  escape 
from  attack  and  siege  by  the  Indians. 

Within  recent  years,  a  plan  has  been  adopted  by  which  the 
government  deposits  part  of  its  surplus  with  the  banks,  on  good 
security.  This  it  can  do  with  more  safety  than  in  Jackson's 
time,  for  the  banks  are  now  carefully  regulated  by  law. 

The  Whig  Party  and  Its  Leaders.  The  men  who  followed 
Clay  and  Webster  in  opposing  Jackson's  policies  at  first  called 


338  THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN   NATIONALITY 

/  . 
themselves  National  Republicans.  As  the  contest  with  Jackson 
became  more  bitter,  a  South  Carolina  paper  suggested  that  those 
opposed  to  his  tyranny  call  themselves  Whigs.  So  the  name 
applied  to  the  Revolutionary  patriots  who  fought  against  King 
George  III  was  adopted  by  the  men  who  were  fighting  "King 
Andrew."  About  the  same  time,  the  followers  of  President 
Jackson  took  the  name  of  Democrats.  Never  popular  with  the 
masses,  who  accepted  him  only  as  Jackson's  heir,  Van  Buren's 
chances  of  reelection  were  destroyed  by  the  panic  of  1837.  The 
Whig  party  approached  the  presidential  election  of  1840  in  high 
spirits.  Passing  over  their  great  leaders,  Clay  and  Webster,  the 
Whigs  nominated  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio.  Like 
Jackson,  Harrison  was  a  frontiersman  and  Indian  fighter,  a 
hero  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  a  plain  man  of  the  people.  For 
Vice  President,  their  candidate  was  John  Tyler  of  Virginia. 

The  Log  Cabin  Campaign  of  1840.  Then  came  the  noisy  and 
picturesque  campaign  of  1840.  A  Democratic  paper  in  Baltimore 
made  the  sneering  comment  that  Harrison  would  be  more  at 
home  "  in  his  log  cabin,  drinking  cider  and  skinning  coons,  than 
living  in  the  White  House  as  President."  The  Whigs  caught  up 
the  sneer,  and  turned  the  taunt  into  an  emblem  of  victory. 
"  Old  Tippecanoe  "  became  the  log-cabin  candidate.  The 
Whigs  made  much  of  the  fact  that  Harrison  was  a  man  of  the 
people,  of  simple  tastes  and  homely  virtues.  Whig  orators 
said  that  while  the  country  was  suffering  from  the  terrible  panic, 
Van  Buren  was  living  in  splendor  at  the  White  House,  eating 
from  plates  of  gold  and  drinking  choice  wines.  The  Whigs 
adopted  the  log  cabin  as  their  campaign  emblem,  and  hard 
cider  was  the  beverage  on  tap  at  political  meetings  all  over  the 
land.  Never  before  had  the  people  shown  so  much  enthusiasm 
over  a  presidential  campaign.  For  the  first  time,  immense  out- 
door meetings  or  campaign  rallies  were  held,  a  prominent  feature 
of  which  was  a  log  cabin,  wheeled  along  amid  enthusiastic  shouts 
for  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too  ! "  When  the  votes  were  counted, 
it  was  found  that  the  Whig  candidates  had  swept  the  country. 
Clever  politician  though  he  was,  Van  Buren  did  not  even  carry 
his  own  state  of  New  York. 


JACKSONIAN   DEMOCRACY  339 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XVIII-XX. 

Dewey,  W.  R.,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  IX. 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Expansion  and  Conflict  (Riverside  History),  chs.  I-VI. 

Harding,  S.  B.,  Select  Orations  Illustrating  American  History :  Web- 
ster's Reply  to  Hayne,  pp.  212-241. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch. 
XXIV. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Slavery  and  Abolition  (American  Nation  Series),  ch.  XX. 

Macdonald,  William,  Jacksonian  Democracy  (American  Nation 
Series). 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  South  Carolina  Ordinance  of  Nullification,  pp.  329-333  ; 
Jackson's  Proclamation  to  South  Carolina,  pp.  333-340  ;  Specie 
Circular,  pp.  359-360. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  V,  chs. 
LIII ;  VI,  chs.  LIV-LV,  LVII-LIX,  LXIII-LXV. 


SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  Protective  Tariff.  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  ch.  X  ;   Dewey,  W.  R.,  Financial  History  of  the 

United  States,  chs.  VIII- XI. 

2.  The  Whigs  and  Jacksonian  Democrats.  Guitteau,  W.  B., 
Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  p.  457  ;  Woodburn, 
J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  IV. 

3.  The  Spoils  System.  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and 
Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XVIII. 

4.  Andrew  Jackson.  Sumner,  Wm.  G.,  Andrew  Jackson  (Amer- 
ican Statesmen  Series). 

REFERENCES   FOR  PUPILS 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VI,  pp.  178-190. 
Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  153-161. 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  VIII. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  Division  and  Reunion (Epochs  of  American  His- 
tory), ch.  IV. 
Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  II,  ch.  I. 


340 


THE    RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 


SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Andrew  Jackson.  Brown,  W.  G.,  Andrew  Jackson  (Riverside 
Biographical  Series)  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VI,  pp.  3- 
11,  31-35  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,  ch.  IX; 
Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  I,  ch.  VII  ;  Wilson,  Woodrow, 
Division  and  Reunion,  pp.  17-26. 

2.  The  Log  Cabin  Campaign.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  Amer- 
ican History,  I,  ch.  XII  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VI,  pp. 
199-207  ;  Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  XVI  ; 
Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  II,  chs.  II— III. 


The  Hermitage,  Nashville 

General  Jackson  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  Tennessee.  He  had  a. genius  for 
farming,  and  his  plantation  made  him  the  wealthiest  man  in  that  section.  He 
built  "  The  Hermitage  "  in  1819  of  brick  made  on  the  plantation. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
HOW  DEMOCRACY   CHANGED   AMERICAN  LIFE 

New  Ideas  in  Politics.  The  democratic  movement  that 
resulted  in  the  election  of  Andrew  Jackson  brought  about  many 
changes  in  our  national  life.  When  Jefferson  became  President, 
scarcely  one  man  in  five  could  vote.  In  many  states,  men  were 
denied  the  ballot  unless  they  owned  a  certain  amount  of  property ; 
in  others,  because  they  were  Jews  or  Roman  Catholics.  By 
Jackson's  time  these  restrictions  were  swept  away ;  most  of  the 
states  gave  the  right  to  vote  to  all  men  over  twenty-one  years, 
and  a  few  radical  persons  even  talked  of  giving  the  ballot  to 
women.  The  people  also  seemed  inclined  to  keep  more  power 
in  their  own  hands,  and  to  place  less  trust  in  their  officials. 
Shorter  terms  of  office  were  adopted,  and  many  officials  formerly 
appointed  by  the  governor  or  legislature  were  chosen  by  popular 
vote.  Instead  of  nominating  candidates  by  a  legislative  caucus, 
political  parties  adopted  the  plan  of  nominating  by  party 
conventions.  This  method  of  nominating  candidates  was  at 
first  used  for  state  offices,  but  beginning  in  1832,  presidential 
candidates  were  also  nominated  by  party  conventions. 

Social  Reforms.  On  social  questions,  too,  the  new  spirit  of 
democracy  was  making  itself  felt.  Men  began  to  pay  more 
attention  to  the  unfortunate  classes,  to  the  blind,  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  the  insane.  Soon  after  the  War  of  1812,  the  first 
state  asylum  for  the  insane  was  built,  and  by  1840  there  were 
fourteen  of  these  asylums.  This  result  was  due  chiefly  to  the 
noble  work  of  Dorothea  Dix.  She  traveled  thousands  of  miles 
throughout  the  Union,  pleading  with  state  legislatures,  and 
arousing  public  sentiment  to  a  point  where  it  would  no  longer 
tolerate  the  abuse  and  neglect  of  the  unfortunate  insane. 

341 


342 


THE    RISE    OF   AMERICAN    NATIONALITY 


Massachusetts  built  the  first  asylum  for  the  blind  in  1833,  and 

-j.    her  example  was  soon  followed  by  a  score  of  other  states.  Many 

\         states  also  began  to  build  asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 

so  that,  like  the  blind,  they  might  be  properly  cared  for,   and 

3       educated  to  become  useful  and  self-supporting  members  of  the 

community.    As  a  result  of  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  early 

thirties,  the  custom  of  putting  persons  in  prison  for  debt  was 

abolished.  About  this  time, 
too,  the  temperance  reform 
movement  had  its  beginning, 
and  in  1851  the  first  state 
prohibition  law  was  adopted 
by  Maine.  In  many  ways 
the  people  showed  that  they 
were  taking  more  interest 
in  the  weak  and  unfortu- 
nate members  of  society,  and 
that  they  were  anxious  to 
make  the  conditions  of  life 
more  favorable  for  all. 

New  Ideas  in  Education. 
Free    public    education   be- 

1 — — ****'    *    ]    came  an  American  ideal  un- 

Horace  Mann  der  ^  influence  of  the  new 

democracy.  A  great  educational  awakening  had  its  origin  in 
i  Massachusetts  in  1837.  Horace  Mann,  one  of  the  world's  fore- 
most educators,  urged  the  people  to  build  better  schoolhouses, 
to  employ  well-trained  teachers,  and  to  spend  more  money  upon 
the  public  schools.  As  a  result  of  his  labors,  Massachusetts  or- 
ganized a  state  system  of  education  along  modern  lines.  This 
meant  a  uniform  system  of  schools  throughout  the  state,  with  a 
definite  course  of  study  and  better  textbooks.  The  first  public 
high  school  appeared  in  Boston  in  1821 ;  after  1850  the  number 
of  such  schools  increased  rapidly,  taking  the  place  of  the  earlier 
academies  whose  advantages  were  enjoyed  only  by  the  few. 
The  example  of  Massachusetts  was  followed  throughout  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States;  and  by  1860  every  northern 


HOW   DEMOCRACY    CHANGED    AMERICAN    LIFE      343 


state  had  a  well-organized  school  system,  beginning  with  the 
first  grade  and  ending  with  the  senior  year  of  the  high  school. 
At  the  South,  less  progress  was  made.  Not  until  after  the  Civil 
War  did  the  southern  states  establish  complete  systems  of  free 
public  schools. 

To  aid  the  common  schools,  the  national  government  made 
large  gifts  of  public  lands.  Beginning  with  Ohio  in  1802,  each 
state  admitted  to  the  Union  received  one  section  of  land  in  every 
township  for  the  support  of  its  public  schools.   After  1848,  each 


University  Hall,  University  of  Michigan 

new  state  received  two  sections  in  every  township  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  lands  were  usually  sold  by  the  states  to  private 
investors,  the  proceeds  being  placed  in  a  permanent  fund  for  the 
support  of  the  schools. 

State  Universities  and  Agricultural  Colleges.  Liberal  grants 
of  land  were  also  made  for  the  support  of  state  universities  and 
agricultural  colleges.  Since  1800,  each  new  state  (except  Maine, 
Texas,  and  West  Virginia)  has  received  at  least  two  townships  of 
public  land  for  a  state  university.  The  oldest  state  university 
in  the  Middle  West  is  the  University  of  Michigan,  which  opened 
its  doors  to  six  students  in  1841.   From  this  time  on,  the  estab- 


344  THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 

lishment  of  state  universities  kept  pace  with  the  stars  on  the  flag. 
Nearly  every  state  now  maintains  a  university,  open  on  equal 
terms  to  both  boys  and  girls.  Graduates  of  high  schools  in  good 
standing  are  admitted  without  examination,  and  tuition  is 
practically  free.  The  establishment  of  the  state  universities 
completed  the  ideal  of  our  American  system  of  education ; 
that  ideal  is,  to  make  it  possible  for  every  boy  and  girl  in  the 
„  land  to  receive  an  education  at  public  expense,  beginning  at  the 
kindergarten  and  ending  with  graduation  from  the  university. 

Many  special  schools  for  the  education  of  students  in  law  and 
medicine  were  established  during  the  period  from  1840  to  1860. 
Higher  industrial  education  began  in  1835  with  the  opening  of 
the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Troy,  New  York,  fol- 
lowed about  ten  years  later  by  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at 
Yale,  and  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  Harvard.  The 
first  normal  school  for  the  training  of  teachers  was  opened  in 
1823  at  Concord,  Vermont.  By  1850,  twenty  normal  schools 
were  in  existence. 

Our  Three  Pioneer  Authors.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
three  great  American  writers  began  to  produce  books  that  were 
read  all  over  the  world.  In  1809,  Washington  Irving  published 
his  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York,  a  humorous  account 
of  the  early  Dutch  settlers.  Next  came  his  Sketch  Book,  with  the 
classic  tale  of  Rip  Van  Winkle.  About  the  same  time,  James 
Fenimore  Cooper  wrote  The  Spy,  our  first  great  American  novel, 
soon  followed  by  his  fascinating  Leather-stocking  Tales  of  Indian 
fife.  The  editors  of  the  North  American  Review  had  never  read  a 
great  poem  by  an  American  author.  Imagine  their  astonishment 
when  they  learned  that  Thanatopsis,  one  of  the  world's  master- 
pieces, was  written  by  an  American  youth  of  seventeen  years, 
William  Cullen  Bryant.  Each  of  these  pioneer  authors  was  a 
master  in  his  own  field  of  literature :  Irving  in  the  writing  of 
short  stories  and  sketches,  Cooper  as  a  novelist,  Bryant  in  the 
realm  of  poetry. 

Five  Great  American  Poets.  Longfellow  and  Whittier,  the 
two  poets  who  stand  highest  in  our  literature,  were  both  born  in 
the  year  1807.    Longfellow  loved  children,  and  he  is  above  all 


HOW   DEMOCRACY   CHANGED   AMERICAN   LIFE     345 

the  poet  of  childhood.  Hiawatha  and  Evangeline  place  him  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  world's  masters  of  verse,  but  The  Children's 
Hour  is  perhaps  his  most  beautiful  poem.  Whittier  is  the  great 
anti-slavery  poet,  although  his  masterpiece,  Snowbound,  is  a 
simple  epic  of  winter  life  on  a  New  England  farm.  When  the 
old  frigate  Constitution  was  about  to  be  broken  up  as  useless, 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  saved  the  ship  from  destruction  by  his 
stirring  poem  Old  Ironsides.  James  Russell  Lowell  wrote  the 
beautiful  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  and  painted  a  noble  picture  of 
Lincoln  in  his  Commemoration  Ode.  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  in  some 
respects  our  most  gifted  author,  wrote  weird  and  wonderful 
poems  like  The  Raven. 

Prose  Writers.  In  prose,  too,  American  authors  were  pro- 
ducing work  of  the  highest  rank.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne's 
Scarlet  Letter  is  perhaps  our  greatest  American  novel,  written  by 
a  master  of  faultless  English.  Poe's  Gold  Bug  and  other  short 
stories  gave  him  first  place  among  the  world's  writers  of  mystery 
tales.  No  less  an  authority  than  Dickens  pronounced  Dana's 
Tico  Years  Before  the  Mast  "  about  the  best  sea-book  in  the 
English  tongue."  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  wrote  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  a  novel  that  stirred  the  world,  and  helped  bring  on  the 
Civil  War. 

Among  our  essayists  and  philosophers,  first  rank  must  be  given 
to  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  whose  writings  "  cut  the  cable  that 
bound  us  to  English  thought."  Thoreau  wrote  Walden  and 
other  works  on  nature;  Lowell  produced  a  brilliant  series  of 
literary  and  political  essays;  and  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  "the 
sunlight  of  American  literature,"  gave  us  The  Professor  at  the 
Breakfast  Table.  Among  scientific  writers,  there  were  Benjamin 
Rush  in  the  field  of  medicine,  James  Kent  in  law,  Noah  Webster, 
who  published  an  American  dictionary,  Audubon,  who  gave  us  an 
account  of  the  birds  of  North  America,  and  Agassiz,  our  foremost 
naturalist. 

American  Orators  and  Historians.  Of  the  orators  whose 
speeches  were  read  all  over  the  country,  two  names  stand  before 
all  others,  Webster  and  Clay.  Webster  is  by  common  consent 
our  greatest  orator,  our  Demosthenes  and  our  Burke.     More 


346  THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY     . 

than  any  other  man,  he  created  a  national  feeling,  a  desire  for 
"  Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable." 
In  later  years,  the  struggle  over  slavery  brought  to  the  front  a 
group  of  eloquent  speakers,  Wendell  Phillips,  William  Lloyd  Gar- 
rison, Henry  Ward  Beecher,  and  last,  but  greatest  of  all,  Abra- 
ham Lincoln.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address  and  his  Second  In- 
augural Address  are  two  of  the  best  public  speeches  ever  written. 

The  stirring  events  of  our  early  history  were  well  told  by 
George  Bancroft,  whose  History  of  the  United  States  covers  the 
period  from  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution.  Two  other  great  historians  began  their  work 
shortly  before  the  Civil  War.  Prescott  wrote  of  the  Spanish 
conquests  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  while  Motley  immortalized  the 
struggle  of  Holland  against  the  tyranny  of  Spain. 

Religious  Activities.  In  our  country,  the  churches  have  no 
connection  with  the  government ;  in  other  words,  there  is  a 
complete  separation  of  church  and  state.  This  principle  is 
emphasized  in  the  first  amendment  to  the  federal  Constitution, 
which  provides  that  "Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting 
an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof."  In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  many  new 
denominations  were  established.  Most  of  these  were  offshoots 
of  the  older  churches,  and  resulted  from  the  American  spirit  of 
liberty  and  independent  thought.  Christianity  was  gaining 
many  converts,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  churches  began 
to  exert  a  powerful  influence  against  intemperance.  From  north- 
ern pulpits  also  came  prophetic  warnings  against  slavery,  the 
issue  which  soon  was  to  divide  the  churches  as  well  as  the  nation 
along  sectional  lines.  But  the  greatest  single  achievement  of  the 
churches  during  this  period  was  the  missionary  movement. 
Charitable  and  religious  work  was  carried  on  among  the  Indians 
of  the  West  and  the  negroes  of  the  South.  Foreign  missions 
were  encouraged,  and  in  1812  the  first  American  missionaries 
to  a  foreign  country  sailed  for  India. 

New  Ideas  on  Slavery.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
northern  states  had  freed  their  own  slaves,  for  slave  labor  was 
not  suited  to  northern  climate  or  industry.    Beginning  about 


HOW   DEMOCRACY   CHANGED   AMERICAN    LIFE     347 

1830,  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  time  gave  rise  to  a  movement 
in  favor  of  forcing  the  southern  states  to  emancipate  their 
slaves.  Thousands  of  men  at  the  North  now  looked  upon 
slavery  as  a  great  evil.  This  result  was  largely  the  work  of  the 
abolitionists,  of  such  bitter  enemies  of  slavery  as  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  Wendell  Phillips,  and  Theodore  Parker.  Eloquent 
speakers  and  gifted  writers  took  up  the  cause  of  emancipation. 
Whittier,  Lowell,  and  Emerson  brought  the  pen  of  genius  to  its 
aid  ;  Wendell  Phillips  and  Theodore  Parker  denounced  slavery  in 
words  of  fire.  "Slavery  is  a  sin,"  said  the  abolitionists  ;  "destroy 
it,  or  break  up  the  Union."  In  1831,  Garrison  published  the 
first  number  of  his  famous  Boston  journal,  The  Liberator.  In 
words  of  terrible  earnestness,  he  wrote :  "I  will  be  as  harsh  as 
truth,  and  as  uncompromising  as  justice.  I  am  in  earnest  —  I 
will  not  equivocate  —  I  will  not  excuse  —  I  will  not  retreat  a 
single  inch  — and  i  will  be  heard  !  " 

Results  of  the  Abolition  Movement.  That  Garrison  was 
heard  is  proven  by  the  rapid  increase  of  the  abolition  societies. 
There  were  two  hundred  of  these  in  1835,  while  five  years  later 
they  numbered  two  thousand.  Conservative  men  at  the  North 
looked  upon  the  abolitionists  as  fanatics.  Garrison  was  mobbed 
on  the  streets  of  Boston  ;  Birney's  newspaper  office  at  Cincinnati 
was  wrecked ;  Lovejoy  was  shot  by  an  Illinois  mob.  The  South 
regarded  the  abolitionists  as  criminals,  and  offered  rewards  for 
the  arrest  of  their  leaders.  Some  Virginia  slaves,  led  by  a  negro 
preacher,  Nat  Turner,  rose  in  revolt  in  1831,  and  killed  sixty 
white  persons,  mostly  women  and  children.  The  South  blamed 
Garrison  and  his  paper  for  this  horrible  massacre.  After  this 
event,  no  abolition  leader  dared  venture  south  of  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line.  "Let  us  alone,"  cried  the  angry  southerners; 
"  keep  out  your  Liberator  and  the  other  abolition  papers  from 
our  mails ;  it  is  they  that  are  arousing  the  slaves  to  revolt. 
Prevent  the  spread  of  your  abolition  ideas ;  put  Garrison  in 
prison,  and  stop  the  publication  of  his  paper." 

Denial  of  the  Right  of  Petition,  1836-1844.  Still  the 
abolitionists  kept  up  their  work,  and  gradually  their  influence 
began  to  tell.  They  formed  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society, 


348  THE   RISE   OF  AMERICAN  NATIONALITY 

made  up  of  men  who  demanded  immediate  emancipation ;  they 
sent  out  agents  to  organize  local  anti-slavery  societies;  they 
flooded  Congress  with  petitions  against  slavery,  circulated  tracts 
and  pamphlets,  and  tried  to  enlist  the  pulpit  and  the  press  in  the 
cause  of  the  slave.  Petition  after  petition  was  presented  in 
Congress  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Ex-President  John  Quincy  Adams,  an  uncompromising  foe  of 
slavery,  took  the  lead  in  presenting  these  petitions.  Provoked 
at  last  by  the  stubborn  persistence  of  Adams,  the  House  adopted 
its  famous  gag,  rule  (1836).  Under  this  rule,  all  petitions  and 
resolutions  relating  in  any  way  to  the  subject  of  slavery  were 
laid  upon  the  table,  without  being  read,  printed,  or  acted  on 
in  any  way.  The  abolitionists  could  now  say  that  the  right  of 
petition,  the  ancient  bulwark  of  liberty,  was  denied  to  them. 
More  memorials  than  ever  were  sent  to  Congress ;  Adams 
continued  to  present  them,  and  on  each  occasion  the  Speaker 
would  declare  him  out  of  order.  At  last  the  slavery  men  realized 
that  the  gag  rule  was  only  strengthening  the  cause  of  the  ab- 
olitionists, and  it  was  repealed  in  1844. 

An  Anti-Slavery  Party  Formed.  Since  neither  the  Whigs 
nor  the  Democrats  would  take  sides  on  the  slavery  question,  the 
anti-slavery  men  determined  to  form  a  political  party  of  their 
own.  They  nominated  James  G.  Birney  for  President  in  1840, 
but  he  received  only  about  seven  thousand  votes.  Four  years 
later,  Birney  was  again  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty  party,  as 
the  anti-slavery  men  now  called  themselves.  This  time  his  popu- 
lar vote  was  sixty -two  thousand,  and  the  support  given  him 
in  New  York  State  defeated  Henry  Clay  for  the  presidency. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Expansion  and  Conflict,  ch.  IX. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XVI. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Slavery  and  Abolition. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XXIII. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the   United  States,  V,  chs. 

XLVII-XLIX  ;   VI,  ch.  LXI. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  VI. 


HOW   DEMOCRACY    CHANGED   AMERICAN   LIFE     349 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  The  Abolition  Movement.  Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History 
Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XXVII  ;  McLaughlin,  A.  C, 
Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  chs.  XXXIII- 
XXXIV  ;  McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States,  V,  ch.  XLV  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party 
Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  V. 

2.  American  Literature.  Matthews,  Brander,  Introduction  to 
American  Literature,  chs.  IV- XV  ;  Morse,  E.  W.,  Causes  and  Ef- 
fects in  American  History,  ch.  XIV. 


Ashland,  Lexington,  Kentucky 

Henry  Clay  built  this  home  in  1803  on  a  large  estate  noted  for  its  race  horses 
and  blooded  stock.  His  generosity  and  the  expense  of  presidential  campaigns 
brought  Clay  almost  to  financial  ruin,  but  his  friends  and  sympathizers  forced 
him  to  accept  an  anonymous  gift  of  money  sufficient  to  prevent  bankruptcy. 

Clay  provided  in  his  will  for  the  emancipation  of  all  his  slaves  at  Ashland. 


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350 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


OUR    GREAT   WESTWARD    EXPANSION 

Inauguration  and  Death  of  Harrison.  On  March  4,  1841,  the 
first  Whig  President  was  inaugurated.  It  was  a  cold,  windy  day  ; 
but  for  two  hours  President  Harrison  rode  with  bared  head  in 
the  procession  along  Pennsylvania  Avenue.  Already  weakened 
by  the  long  and  tiresome  journey  from  his  farm  in  Ohio,  the 
President  caught  a  severe 
cold.  During  the  following 
weeks,  when  the  old  Indian 
fighter  most  needed  rest  and 
quiet,  he  was  besieged  by  a 
horde  of  eager  office  seekers. 
The  cold  developed  into 
pneumonia;  and  just  one 
month  after  the  inaugura- 
tion, the  brave,  upright, 
kindly  Harrison  passed  away, 
the  first  of  our  Presidents  to 
die  in  office. 

Tyler's  Quarrel  with  the 
Whigs.  The  Whigs  were 
dismayed  at  the  death  of 
their  chief,  and  with  good 
reason.      Our    Constitution 

provides  that  when  the  President  dies,  the  Vice  President  shall 
succeed  him.  Harrison's  death  placed  John  Tyler  of  Virginia 
in  the  presidential  chair;  and  Tyler  was  at  heart  a  Demo- 
crat, allied  with  the  Whigs  only  because  of  his  opposition  to 
Jackson.  Within  six  months,  there  was  a  bitter  quarrel  be- 
tween President  Tyler  and  the  Whig  Congress,    Under  Clay's 

351 


William  Henry  Harrison 


A^> 


352 


SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 


direction,  Congress  passed  a  bill  creating  a  new  Bank  of  the 
United  States.  This  measure  the  President  promptly  vetoed. 
When  the  Whigs  amended  the  bill  so  as  to  meet  his  objections, 
they  were  staggered  by  a  second  veto.  Henceforth,  it  was  to 
be  war  to  the  death  between  Tyler  and  the  party  which  had 
placed  him  in  office. 

Two  days  after  the  veto,  every  member  of  the  Cabinet  except 
Webster  resigned  office.    Seventy  Whig  Congressmen  met  in  a 

caucus,  and  prepared  an  ad- 
dress to  their  fellow  Whigs 
which  read  Tyler  out  of  the 
party.  They  denounced  the 
President  as  a  man  who 
had  betrayed  his  party, 
even  as  Benedict  Arnold  be- 
trayed his  country.  Tyler's 
vetoes,  they  said,  had 
wrested  from  the  Whigs  the 
fruits  of  a  victory  crowning 
twelve  years  of  effort  to  se- 
cure control  of  the  govern- 
ment. For  the  remaining 
three  and  a  half  years  of  his 
term,  Tyler  stood  alone,  a 
President  without  a  party. 
Over  Congress  he  could  ex- 
ercise no    control,   for   the 


John  Tyler 

From  an  old  print  after  the  portrait  by 
Thomas  W.  Sully,  Jr. 


Whig  majority  opposed  him  in  a  solid  phalanx,  Henry  Clay  at 
their  head.  The  chasm  between  Tyler  and  the  Whigs  could 
scarcely  be  widened,  even  when  the  President  sent  in  another 
veto,  this  time  against  a  Whig  tariff  law. 

The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty.  Webster  did  not  resign  his 
office  as  Secretary  of  State  until  after  he  had  concluded  an  im- 
portant treaty  on  which  he  was  engaged.  For  years  there  had 
been  a  controversy  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  over  the  northeastern  boundary  of  our  country,  the 
territory  in  dispute  lying  along  the  Maine  border.    The  peace 


OUR  GREAT   WESTWARD   EXPANSION  353 

treaty  of  1783  had  established  a  boundary  line  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  but  the  maps  used  were  inaccurate,  and 
it  was  hard  to  tell  just  what  line  was  meant.  Every  attempt 
to  settle  the  dispute  had  ended  in  failure,  but  at  last  Webster 
succeeded  where  other  men  had  failed.  The  Webster- Ashburt on 
Treaty  adopted  a  compromise  line  which  gave  the  United 
States  about  seven  twelfths  of  the  area  in  dispute,  while  Great 
Britain  secured  the  remainder.  The  two  nations  also  agreed 
to  cooperate  in  putting  down  the  African  slave  trade,  and  to 
surrender  fugitives  from  justice  escaping  from  one  country  to 
the  other. 

Texas  Declares  Her  Independence,  1836.  Soon  after  Mexico 
became  independent  of  Spain  (1821),  the  Mexican  government 
passed  a  law  to  encourage  colonization  in  the  province  of  Texas. 
Attracted  by  the  offer  of  cheap  lands,  thousands  of  pioneers 
from  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States  crossed  the 
Sabine  River,  taking  their  slaves  with  them.  At  last  when 
twenty  thousand  Americans  were  living  in  Texas,  Mexico 
became  alarmed  and  forbade  any  more  of  our  citizens  to  enter 
that  country.  No  attention  was  paid  to  this  order,  for  Texas 
was  no  longer  a  Mexican  province  except  in  name.  Texas  was  in 
fact  an  American  community,  awaiting  the  favorable  moment 
to  throw  off  the  Mexican  yoke.  The  opportunity  came  in  1835, 
when  General  Santa  Anna  made  himself  ruler  of  Mexico  by  the 
familiar  process  of  heading  a  successful  revolution.  Santa  Anna 
set  aside  the  constitution  of  Mexico,  and  ruled  the  country  as  a 
military  dictator.  The  petition  of  the  Texans  for  a  separate 
state  government  was  rejected,  and  four  thousand  troops  were 
ordered  into  Texas.  Nothing  now  remained  for  the  Texans 
except  submission  to  military  despotism,  or  a  war  for  liberty. 
They  chose  to  fight,  and  a  convention  which  met  in  March,  1836, 
declared  that  henceforth  Texas  was  a  free  and  independent 
republic. 

In  the  city  of  San  Antonio  an  old  mission  fort,  the  Alamo, 
stands  to-day  as  a  revered  landmark  in  the  struggle  for  Texan 
independence.  Here  in  the  spring  of  1836,  a  little  band  of  183 
Texans  made  a  heroic  stand  for  ten  days  against  1000  Mexicans. 


354 


sir-  'v 


A* 

SLAVERY   AND    THE    WEST 


When  the  Mexicans  finally  captured  the  fort,  they  promptly 
murdered  the  few  survivors  among  its  garrison.  The  Alamo  was 
avenged  two  months  later.  In  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  800 
Texans  under  General  Sam  Houston  routed  President  Santa 
Anna's  Mexican  army  of  5000  men,  and  took  him  prisoner. 


The  Alamo,  San  Antonio,  Texas 

The  Alamo  or  "Poplar  Church"  was  built  in  1757  by  the  Spanish  as  a  chapel 
and  fort. 

When  Santa  Anna  imprisoned  Stephen  F.  Austin,  the  "Father  of  Texas,"  the 
Texans  made  Sam  Houston  commander  in  chief  of  the  local  forces  to  resist  inva- 
sion. Santa  Anna  attacked  the  Alamo  February  22,  1836.  The  defenders  were 
commanded  by  Colonel  James  Bowie,  Lieutenant  Colonel  William  B.  Travis, 
and  David  Crockett,  the  famous  Indian  fighter.  The  fort  did  not  fall  until 
every  man  had  been  killed  or  disabled  before  the  final  assault  of  the  Mexicans. 
"Thermopyla3  had  her  messenger  of  defeat :  the  Alamo  had  none." 

Texas  became  an  independent  state,  the  "  Lone  Star  State,"  it 
was  popularly  called,  since  its  flag  contained  a  single  star.  Texas 
was  recognized  by  the  United  States  and  other  powers,  but  its 
independence  was  not  conceded  by  Mexico. 

Texas  and  the  Slavery  Issue.  With  independence  won, 
Texas  at  once  asked  to  be  annexed  to  the  United  States.    An- 


OUR  GREAT   WESTWARD   EXPANSION  355 

nexation  was  favored  by  the  South ;  for  with  her  371,000  square 
miles  of  slave  territory,  Texas  seemed  to  be  the  promised  land 
for  the  southern  planter.  Northern  men  were  alarmed  at  the 
prospect ;  for  this  immense  territory,  more  than  eight  times  as 
large  as  Pennsylvania,  might  some  day  be  cut  up  into  half  a 
dozen  slave  states.  The  New  York  Evening  Post  declared  that 
the  question  at  issue  was  whether  our  government  "  shall  devote 
its  whole  energies  to  the  perpetuation  of  slavery."  On  the  other 
hand,  southern  leaders  like  Calhoun  insisted  that  annexation  was 
necessary  "  to  guarantee  the  protection  of  the  slave  system." 
Thus  the  issue  between  slavery  and  freedom  was  drawn  even 
more  sharply  than  in  the  days  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 

Because  of  the  opposition  of  the  anti-slavery  men,  Texas  for 
seven  years  knocked  in  vain  at  the  door  of  the  Union.  Presi- 
dent Tyler,  himself  a  Virginian,  was  strongly  in  favor  of  annexa- 
tion. "  No  civilized  government  on  earth,"  said  he,  "would 
reject  the  voluntary  tender  of  a  domain  so  rich  and  fertile,  so 
replete  with  all  that  can  add  to  national  greatness  and  wealth, 
and  so  necessary  to  its  peace  and  safety."  The  President  laid 
before  the  Senate  an  annexation  treaty  made  with  Texas  by  his 
Secretary  of  State,  John  C.  Calhoun.  To  every  one's  surprise,  the 
Senate  by  a  decisive  vote  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty.  Anxious 
as  they  were  for  annexation,  even  the  southern  Senators  would 
not  aid  Tyler's  political  fortunes  by  voting  for  his  pet  measure. 
With  the  presidential  election  of  1844  so  near  at  hand,  the  Texas 
question  became  a  leading  issue  in  the  campaign. 

The  Presidential  Campaign  of  1844.  After  a  hard  fight  in 
the  Democratic  convention  at  Baltimore,  the  friends  of  annexa- 
tion won  the  day.  They  nominated  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee 
for  President,  and  declared  for  the  annexation  of  Texas,  as  well 
as  the  occupation  of  the  whole  of  Oregon.  This  platform  was  an 
appeal  to  the  expansion  sentiment  of  both  North  and  South  — 
Oregon  for  the  North,  Texas  for  the  South. 

For  the  third  and  last  time,  Henry  Clay  was  chosen  by 
the  Whig  party  as  its  standard-bearer.  Clay's  position  was  a 
difficult  one.  If  he  declared  for  annexation,  he  would  lose  the 
votes  of  the  northern  Whigs  ;  if  he  opposed  it,  he  could  not  hope 


356 


'^uM  T  y-u^f^ 


,*S»y^UVVls+JSA^SVV*~  > 


SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 


to  carry  the  South.  Clay  started  out  by  opposing  annexation, 
but  during  the  campaign  he  came  out  with  a  letter  in  which  he 
tried  to  please  both  sides.  "  I  should  be  glad  to  see  it,"  he  wrote 
of  the  annexation,  "  without  dishonor,  without  war,  with  the 
common  consent  of  the  Union,  and  upon  just  and  fair  terms.  I 
do  not  think  that  the  subject  of  slavery  ought  to  affect  the 
question  one  way  or  the  other."  This  attempt  toJi&traddle  " 
lost  Clay  the  anti-slavery  vote  in  New  York  and  Michigan,  and 
with  it,  the  Presidency. 

Texas  Annexed  as  a  Slave  State,  1845.  Polk's  victory  in  the 
presidential  race  meant  that  Texas  would  be  annexed ;  so  Tyler 
hastened  to  secure  the  prize  before  he  went 
out  of  office.  Congress  passed  a  resolution 
in  favor  of  annexing  Texas,  which  was 
signed  by  President  Tyler  just  three  days 
before  his  term  ended.  News  of  the  an- 
nexation resolution  was  received  by  the 
Texans  with  wild  enthusiasm.  They 
promptly  adopted  a  state  constitution,  and 
in  December,  1845,  Texas  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  slave  state.  The  annex- 
ation was  not  likely  to  prove  a  peaceful 
one.  Mexico  had  not  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  Texas,  and  had  warned  our  government  that  she 
would  regard  annexation  as  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war. 
When  Congress  voted  to  annex  Texas,  Mexico  at  once  broke  off 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  United  States  ;  that  is,  she  recalled 
her  minister  from  Washington,  and  began  to  prepare  for  war. 

Expansion  to  the  Pacific.  Our  history  during  the  next  three 
years,  from  1845  to  1848,  is  the  story  of  that  wonderful  westward 
expansion  which  carried  the  American  flag  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Just  as  Jefferson  in  1803  had  pushed  the  western  limits  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
so  Polk's  administration  carried  that  boundary  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific.  Oregon,  California,  and  New  Mexico  added  to  the 
Union  810,000  square  miles  of  territory,  an  area  nearly  equal  to 
the  Louisiana  Purchase.     The  larger  part  of  this  westward 


Flag  of  "  The  Lone 
Star  State" 


OUR   GREAT   WESTWARD    EXPANSION  357 

expansion  —  New  Mexico  and  California  —  came  as  the  result 
of  war  with  Mexico ;  but  in  the  Northwest,  Oregon  was  secured 
by  a  peaceful  compromise  with  Great  Britain. 

The  Oregon  Question.  The  Oregon  that  we  secured  was  not 
the  Oregon  claimed  in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1844.  In 
the  early  forties,  Oregon  was  the  name  given  to  the  whole 
region  west  of  the  Rockies,  between  Spanish  America  at  42°,  and 
Russian  America  (or  Alaska),  which  extended  south  to  54°  40'. 
Great  Britain  as  well  as  the  United  States  claimed  the  Oregon 
country,  and  it  was  hard  to  settle  the  dispute.  The  Democratic 
convention  that  nominated  James  K.  Polk  took  a  strong  stand 
in  support  of  our  claim  to  the  entire  region.  "  The  whole  of 
Oregon  or  none  "  was  the  campaign  cry  of  the  Democrats  ;  while 
"  Fifty-four-forty  or  fight  "  was   another,  still   more  defiant. 

Our  claim  to  Oregon  was  based  on  four  grounds : 

(1)  Discovery.  In  1792,  Captain  Robert  Gray,  a  Boston  fur- 
trader,  discovered  the  river  which  he  named  after  his  ship,  the 
Columbia. 

(2)  Exploration.  In  1805,  Lewis  and  Clark  passed  down  the 
Columbia  River  from  its  headwaters  to  the  ocean,  spending  the 
winter  in  a  camp  near  its  mouth. 

(3)  Treaty.  In  1819,  Spain  signed  a  treaty  with  the  United 
States,  giving  up  in  our  favor  her  claims  on  the  territory  north 
of  the  parallel  of  42°. 

(4)  Settlement.  In  1811,  the  fur-trading  post  of  Astoria  was 
established  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  by  John  Jacob  Astor. 
More  important  still,  thousands  of  American  settlers  had  gone 
to  Oregon,  taking  their  families  with  them.  By  1845  there  were 
six  thousand  American  settlers  in  Oregon,  most  of  whom  lived 
south  of  the  forty-ninth  parallel. 

On  her  part,  Great  Britain  claimed  title  to  that  part  of  Oregon 
between  Alaska  and  the  Columbia  River.  Her  claim  was  based  : 

(1)  On  Drake's  voyage  along  the  Pacific  coast  in  1579, 
also  upon  the  explorations  of  Cook,  Vancouver,  and  Mackenzie. 

(2)  The  British  Hudson  Bay  Company  had  established  a 
number  of  fur-trading  posts  in  Oregon,  and  north  of  the  Colum- 
bia River  many  Canadian  settlers  had  found  homes. 


358 


SLAVERY  AND   THE   WEST 


The  Oregon  Dispute  Compromised.  The  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  had  signed  a  treaty  in  1818,  agreeing  that  both 
countries  might  occupy  the  disputed  territory  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  leaving  the  settlement  of  the  boundary  for  the 
future.  This  agreement  for  joint  occupation  could  be  ended  by 
either  country  on  giving  a  year's  notice  to  the  other.  President 
Polk  was  elected  on  a  platform  which  demanded  that  the  United 
States  secure  the  whole  of  Oregon.  With  the  approval  of 
Congress,  he  served  notice  on  Great  Britain  that  the  agreement 
for  joint  occupation  should  end  after  twelve  months. 


Courtesy  of  the  Oregon  Historical  Society. 

The  Hudson  Bay  Company's  Fort  Vancouver,  1845 

This  trading  post  was  located  within  what  is  now  the  United  States  military 
reserve  of  Fort  Vancouver,  adjoining  the  present  city  of  Portland,  Oregon. 

How  was  the  boundary  dispute  to  be  settled?  The  line  of 
54°  40'  would  shut  Canada  off  from  the  Pacific,  and  to  this  Great 
Britain  would  never  consent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  quiet  forces 
of  settlement  and  industry  had  made  the  region  south  of  the 
Columbia  an  American  community.  The  United  States  was  al- 
ready at  war  with  Mexico ;  and  President  Polk  wisely  decided 
that  one  war  at  a  time  was  enough.  So  a  treaty  was  signed  in 
June,  1846,  by  which  each  country  gave  up  a  part  of  its  claims. 
It  was  agreed  that  the  forty-ninth  parallel  of  latitude  should  be 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  from  the  Rocky 


OUR   GRtiAT   WESTWARD    EXPANSION 


359 


Mountains  to  the  Pacific.  This  gave  us  the  territory  between 
the  parallels  of  42°  and  49°,  from  which  the  states  of  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  Idaho  have  sinced  been  formed,  together  with 
portions  of  Montana  and  Wyoming.  Great  Britain  secured  the 
splendid  domain  now  the  province  of  British  Columbia. 

The  Oregon  Trail.  The  settlement  of  Oregon  is  one  of  the 
most  romantic  chapters  in  our  history.  The  year  1832  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  American  advance  into  the  Oregon  country. 


Copyright  and  Courtesy  of  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 

A  Far  Western  Trading  Post 

Among  the  earliest  settlers  were  the  missionaries,  who  went  to 
the  banks  of  the  Columbia  in  answer  to  the  request  of  the 
Indians  for  the  white  man's  Bible.  An  army  of  settlers  was 
soon  making  its  way  over  the  Oregon  trail.  This  emigration  was 
partly  due  to  the  panic  of  1837,  and  the  hard  times  that  followed. 
Another  motive  was  the  excitement  of  a  journey  beyond  the 
great  mountains  into  a  new  country.  The  "  Oregon  fever  " 
seized  upon  thousands  of  settlers  in  the  Middle  West,  who 
hastened  to  set  out  over  the  Oregon  trail.  This  trail  extended 
two  thousand  miles  across  plains  and  mountains,  from  Inde- 


/^    7 

7    " 
360  SLAVERY   AND   THE    WEST 

pendence,  Missouri,  through  the  South  Pass  to  the  valley  of  the 
Columbia.  It  took  from  three  to  five  months  to  make  the 
journey,  the  settlers  traveling  in  caravans  for  mutual  aid  and 
protection. 

In  the  year  1843,  a  thousand  emigrants  of  all  ages  collected 
at  Independence,  Missouri,  for  the  journey  to  Oregon.  Their 
caravan  included  120  wagons  and  5000  horses  and  cattle. 
The  women,  children,  and  household  goods  were  carried  in 
large  wagons  with  canvas  tops,  called  "  prairie  schooners." 
The  men  and  older  boys  walked  or  rode  alongside  on  horse- 
back, driving  herds  of  cattle,  and  holding  their  guns  ready 
for  a  sudden  Indian  attack.  At  night  the  wagons  were 
drawn  up  in  a  great  circle,  and  securely  fastened  together. 
The  teams  were  unyoked  and  driven  out  to  pasture,  fires 
were  lighted  to  cook  the  evening  meal,  tents  were  pitched  for 
the  men,  and  the  guard  mounted.  The  watches  began  at 
eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  ending  at  four  the  next  morning. 

Government  of  the  New  Territory.  No  hardship  of  drought 
or  tempest  or  Indian  attack  could  check  the  tide  of  settlers 
which  was  pouring  into  the  Willamette  Valley ;  and  by  the 
year  1846,  Oregon  was  the  home  of  six  thousand  American 
pioneers.  These  settlers  formed  a  voluntary  association 
for  their  government,  elected  officers,  and  adopted  a  code 
of  laws.  Pride  in  their  settlement  and  confidence  in  its 
future  were  even  then  characteristic  of  the  West.  "A  few 
months  since,"  wrote  Elijah  White  in  1841,  "  at  our  Oregon 
lyceum,  it  was  unanimously  voted  that  the  colony  of  Willa- 
mette held  out  the  most  flattering  encouragement  to  im- 
migrants of  any  colony  on  the  globe."  In  1846,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  boundary  dispute  with  Great  Britain  was  settled 
by  a  compromise.  Two  years  later,  Congress  passed  an  act 
for  the  government  of  Oregon  Territory,  one  clause  of  which 
forever  prohibited  slavery  in  this  region. 


OUR   GREAT   WESTWARD    EXPANSION  361 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  428-441. 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Expansion  and  Conflict,  ch.  VII. 

Garrison,  G.  P.,  Westward  Extension  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 
I- XI. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Webster- Ashburton  Treaty,  pp.  361-368  ;  Joint  Resolution 
for  Annexation  of  Texas,  pp.  368-370. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Oregon.  McLaughlin,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  Amer- 
ican Nation,  ch.  XXXI  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  Territorial  Growth  of  the 
United  States. 

2.  The  Annexation  of  Texas.  Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History 
Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  XXIX  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  Territorial 
Growth  of  the  United  States,  ch.  V. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Annexation  of  Texas.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of 
American  Expansion ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VII,  pp. 
3-9  ;  Long,  A.  W.,  American  Patriotic  Prose,  pp.  165-167  ;  Sparks, 
E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  XXVI  ;  Wright,  H.  C., 
American  Progress,  ch.  XIII. 

2.  Oregon.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of  American  Expansion, 
ch.  V  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  215-240  ; 
Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  ch.  XXVI  ;  Great  Epochs 
in  American  History,  VII,  pp.  10-13,  26-35  ;  Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last 
American  Frontier,  ch.  V  ;  Wright,  H.  C.,  American  Progress,  ch.  XV. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
OUR   WAR   WITH   MEXICO 


Causes  of  the  War.  The  annexation  of  Texas  alone  might 
not  have  brought  on  war  with  Mexico,  but  there  were  other 
causes  of  friction  between  that  country  and  the  United  States. 
In  the  first  place,  Mexico's  repeated  refusal  to  sell  Texas  was 

exasperating  to  the  south- 
ern statesmen  in  control 
of  our  government.  Bent 
on  securing  more  slave 
territory,  these  leaders 
felt  aggrieved  because 
Mexico  stood  in  their 
way.  Then  too,  Mexico 
refused  to  pay  the  claims 
of  our  citizens  whose 
property  had  been  seized 
during  the  frequent  Mex- 
ican revolutions.  It  is 
true  that  the  Mexican 
government  was  bank- 
rupt, and  unable  to  pay 
these  or  any  other  claims ; 
but  this  fact  seemed  to 
President  Polk  only  an- 
other reason  why  Mexico 
ought  to  accept  our  offer 
to  purchase  California  and  New  Mexico.  On  her  part,  Mexico 
resented  the  aid  given  by  our  citizens  to  the  Texan  revolu- 
tionists. The  final  grievance,  so  far  as  Mexico  was  concerned, 
was  our  annexation  of  Texas,  even  though  this  event  came  nine 
years  after  the  "  Lone  Star  State"  had  won  her  independence. 

362 


James  K.  Polk 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collection, 
War  Department,  Washington. 


OUR   WAR   WITH    MEXICO  363 

President  Polk  came  into  office  determined  to  secure  Cali- 
fornia and  New  Mexico,  in  addition  to  Texas,  from  our  resentful 
neighbor.  California  was  already  on  the  point  of  declaring  her 
independence ;  and  President  Polk  believed  that  in  spite  of  our 
Monroe  Doctrine,  Great  Britain  meant  to  possess  that  country 
if  she  could.  Accordingly,  Polk  sent  a  commissioner  to  the  City 
of  Mexico  with  an  offer  of  forty  million  dollars  for  California 
and  New  Mexico.  Popular  feeling  compelled  the  Mexican 
government  to  decline  to  receive  our  commissioner.  Apparently 
the  differences  between  the  two  countries  could  be  settled  only 
by  an  appeal  to  arms. 

Outbreak  of  War.  Besides  her  resentment  over  the  annexa- 
tion itself,  Mexico  had  another  grievance.  Texas  claimed  that 
her  southwestern  boundary  was  the  Rio  Grande ;  Mexico  in- 
sisted that  it  was  the_Nii£ces  River.  Adopting  the  Texan  claim, 
President  Polk  ordered  General  Zachary  Taylor  to  advance  to 
the  Rio  Grande.  Taylor's  advance  meant  war.  On  April  24, 
1846,  a  party  of  American  dragoons  was  ambushed  by  a  large 
force  of  Mexicans  who  had  crossed  to  the  east  side  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  When  this  news  reached  Washington,  President  Polk 
sent  a  war  message  to  Congress  declaring  :  "  Mexico  has  passed 
the  boundary  of  the  United  States,  has  invaded  our  territory, 
and  shed  American  blood  upon  the  American  soil."  Congress 
promptly  voted  to  enlist  fifty  thousand  men  for  "  the  war  which 
exists  by  the  act  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico." 

Three  campaigns  were  planned  against  Mexico.  First,  Gen- 
eral Taylor's  army  of  occupation  was  to  march  across  the  Rio 
Grande  to  Monterey,  striking  against  the  northern  provinces 
of  Mexico.  Second,  California  and  New  Mexico  were  to  be 
occupied  and  held,  for  President  Polk  meant  to  claim  this 
territory  as  the  price  of  peace.  Third,  General  Scott  was  to 
seize  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz  on  the  southeastern  coast,  and  from 
this  point  march  directly  upon  the  City  of  Mexico. 

The  Campaign  in  Northern  Mexico.  General  Taylor's 
campaign  in  northern  Mexico  was  a  series  of  victories.  The 
Mexican  soldiers  made  a  brave,  desperate  defense  against  the  in- 
vader ;  they  had  always  the  advantage  of  numbers,  and,  usually, 


/  -y  Aa    AAt-nn^ 


364  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

of  position.  But  in  training,  equipment,  and  leadership,  they 
were  hopelessly  inferior  to  our  troops.  Driving  the  Mexicans 
before  him,  General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  ad- 
vanced westward.  After  an  attack  lasting  three  days,  he 
captured  the  strongly  fortified  town  of  Monterey.  Northern 
Mexico  was  in  the  hands  of  our  army  of  occupation  by  the  end 
of  the  year  1846. 

Many  of  Taylor's  men  were  now  sent  to  aid  in  the  attack  on 
Vera  Cruz ;  and  General  Santa  Anna  planned  to  retrieve  Mex- 
ico's cause  by  crushing  Taylor's  weakened  army.  Near  the 
village  of  Buena  Vista,  a  narrow  mountain  defile  offered  our 
troops  a  splendid  position  for  defense  against  superior  numbers. 
Here,  on  February  22,  1847,  General  Taylor's  army  of  5000  men 
met  the  charges  of  20,000  Mexicans.  The  field  was  stubbornly 
contested  for  two  days,  but  the  battle  ended  in  the  greatest 
victory  won  by  our  forces  during  the  war.  His  work  over, 
"  Old  Rough  and  Ready,"  as  the  soldiers  loved  to  call  General 
Taylor,  left  for  his  Louisiana  plantation.  He  was  not  to  remain 
there  long,  for  Buena  Vista  gave  the  United  States  another 
military  hero,  and  soon  afterwards,  another  soldier-President. 

Conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  California.  The  second 
campaign  against  Mexico  was  the  seizure  of  her  northern 
possessions,  California  and  New  Mexico.  This  was  accomplished 
in  a  few  months,  almost  without  a  blow.  Starting  from  Fort 
Leavenworth,  Kansas,  a  little  army  under  Colonel  Stephen 
Kearny  made  the  difficult  march  of  nine  hundred  miles  to 
Santa  Fe.  Without  the  loss  of  a  man  in  battle,  Kearny  raised 
the  Stars  and  Stripes  over  the  capital  of  New  Mexico.  Hence- 
forth, he  declared,  this  entire  territory  was  to  form  part  of  the 
United  States. 

The  first  prize  of  the  war  was  won,  but  a  greater  remained. 
From  Santa  Fe,  Kearny  pushed  westward  towards  the  Pacific. 
Imagine  his  disappointment  on  learning  from  the  scout,  Kit 
Carson,  that  California  was  already  conquered  !  At  the  first  news 
of  war,  the  American  settlers  in  California  declared  their 
independence  of  Mexico.  That  result  was  due  chiefly  to  John  C. 
Fremont,  the  "  Pathfinder,"  who  in  1845  had  led  a  band  of 


OUR   WAR   WITH   MEXICO 


365 


Tm/for'n  route 


Texas  and  the  Mexican  War 

Showing  Kearny's  route  to  New  Mexico  and  California ;  General  Taylor's  cam- 
paigns in  northern  Mexico  ;  and  General  Scott's  campaign  against  the  capital. 

explorers  to  California.  As  soon  as  war  broke  out,  Fremont, 
aided  by  Commodore  Stockton  of  the  navy,  took  possession  of 
the  country.  General  Kearny's  forces  arrived  in  time  to 
complete  the  task.  California  was  easily  won.  "  We  simply 
marched, "  said  one  of  Fremont's  soldiers,  "  all  over  California 
from  Sonoma  to  San  Diego,  and  raised  the  American  flag  with- 
out opposition  or  protest.  We  tried  to  find  an  enemy,  but  we 
could   not." 

General  Scott  Captures  the  City  of  Mexico.     Mexico  was  not 
yet  ready  to  yield,  so  the  third  campaign  was  begun.    General 


366 


SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 


Winfield  Scott  landed  his  army  of  twelve  thousand  men  at  Vera 
Cruz  in  March,  1847.  Two  hundred  miles  away  was  the  capital 
of  Mexico;  this  time  it  was  to  be  a  blow  at  the  heart.  Sixty 
miles  from  Vera  Cruz,  at  the  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo,  the 
Mexicans  made  a  desperate  stand.  On  the  second  day  of  the 
combat,  the  Americans  swept  through  the  pass  with  impetuous 
force,  crushing  Santa  Anna's  army.  Four  months  of  inaction 
followed,  while  vain  efforts  were  made  to  persuade  the  Mexicans 
to  accept  President  Polk's  olive  branch ;  in  other  words,  to  cede 
California  and  New  Mexico.     At  last  General  Scott's  army 


San  Francisco,  1849 

Thirty  American  trading  vessels  lie  in  the  harbor. 

again  advanced,  and  repeated  victories  opened  the  way  to 
Mexico  City.  Storming  the  heights  of  Chapultepec,  the  power- 
ful fortress  that  guarded  the  capital,  our  soldiers  entered  the 
City  of  Mexico  and  raised  the  Stars  and  Stripes  over  the  National 
Palace.  Santa  Anna  had  fled,  and  Mexico  lay  prostrate  before 
the  invader. 

The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  February,  1848.  Mexico 
gave  up  her  claim  to  the  disputed  territory  in  Texas,  and  ceded 
Upper  California  and  New  Mexico.  In  return,  the  United  States 
paid  Mexico  $15,000,000,  and  agreed  to  pay  claims  held  by  our 
citizens  against  Mexico  to  the  amount  of  $3,500,000. 

Results  of  the  War.  (1)  An  immense  territory  won.  The  ces- 
sion of  California  and  New  Mexico  added  529,000  square  miles 
of  territory  to  the  United  States,  from  which  have  been  formed 


OUR   WAR   WITH    MEXICO  367 

the  states  of  California,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah, 
and  parts  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  Because  of  a  dispute  over 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  cession,  the  United  States  in  1853 
paid  Mexico  $10,000,000  for  a  strip  of  land  in  the  southern  parts 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

(2)  A  spirit  of  distrust  created.  The  surrender  oi  this  territory 
was  the  logical  result  of  the  war,  but  Mexico  has  never  forgiven 
the  United  States  for  the  seizure  of  her  provinces.  Moreover, 
the  other  republics  of  Central  and  South  America  became  sus- 
picious of  the  aims  and  policies  of  the  United  States,  fearful  lest 
this  country  might  again  expand  toward  the  south.  This  distrust 
for  many  years  prevented  the  close  friendship  that  should  exist 
between  the  United  States  and  her  sister  republics  on  the 
American  continents. 

(3)  A  new  westward  movement  begins.  Gold  was  discovered 
in  the  Sacramento  Valley  one  week  before  the  peace  treaty  was 
signed.  The  next  year,  one  hundred  thousand  people  started 
for  California,  beginning  another  great  westward  movement. 

(4)  The  United  States  becomes  a  power  in  the  Pacific.  The 
annexation  of  California  and  Oregon  gave  us  an  unbroken  coast- 
line of  more  than  one  thousand  miles  on  the  Pacific,  with  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in  the  world  at  San  Francisco  Bay.  From  this 
time  on,  the  United  States  became  vitally  interested  in  the 
trade  of  the  Pacific.  American  ships  had  been  carrying  on  an 
important  trade  with  China  for  many  years.  When  that  country 
was  finally  opened  up  to  the  outside  world  in  1858,  we  secured  the 
same  privileges  that  were  granted  to  a  number  of  European 
nations.  By  this  treaty,  a  number  of  Chinese  ports  were 
opened  to  our  trade,  and  China  agreed  to  receive  a  diplomatic 
representative  from  the  United  States. 

About  this  time,  too,  Commodore  Matthew  Perry,  a  brother 
of  the  hero  of  Lake  Erie,  made  a  treaty  with  Japan  which  opened 
two  of  her  ports  to  our  commerce.  The  United  States  became 
more  interested  than  ever  in  Hawaii,  where  hundreds  of  our 
whaling  vessels  had  been  stopping  every  year.  We  recognized 
the  independence  of  Hawaii  in  1843,  and  this  action  probably 
prevented  the  seizure  of  the  islands  by  some  European  power. 


368  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

(5)  An  ocean-to-ocean  route  planned.  The  United  States  made 
a  treaty  with  Colombia  in  1846  which  gave  us  a  right  of  way 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  American  capital  built  a  railroad 
across  the  isthmus  during  the  next  seven  years,  and  this  route 
aided  the  "  Forty-Niners  "  who  were  flocking  to  the  gold  fields 
of  California.  Soon  afterwards  we  made  a  treaty  with  Nicaragua 
giving  the  United  States  important  rights  in  the  construction 
of  a  canal  through  that  country.  At  the  same  time  we  agreed  to 
take  Great  Britain  into  partnership  if  we  built  a  canal  in 
Nicaragua;  while  in  return,  Great  Britain  promised  that  she 
would  never  attempt  to  plant  a  colony  in  Central  America.  The 
United  States  also  promised  that  if  a  canal  or  railroad  should 
be  built  at  Panama,  it  would  be  "  open  to  the  citizens  and  sub- 
jects of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  on  equal  terms." 

(6)  The  slavery  contest  reopened.  Many  northern  men  op- 
posed the  war  with  Mexico,  believing  that  its  real  object  was  to 
secure  more  slave  territory.  Even  before  the  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  with  Mexico,  the  contest  over  slavery  was  renewed 
in  Congress.  From  that  time  until  the  Civil  War,  slavery  was  the 
one  supreme  issue  before  the  country. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  445-450. 
Garrison,  G.  P.,  Westward  Extension,  chs.  XII- XVI. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  ch.  II. 
McM aster,  J.  B.,   History  of  the  People  of  the    United  States,  VII, 

chs.  LXXX,  LXXXII. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  VIII. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VII,  pp.  77-87. 
Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest,  chs.  XVIII- XX. 
Nicolay,  Helen,  Our  Nation  in  the  Building,  ch.  XVII. 
Wright,  H.  C,  American  Progress,  ch.  XIV. 


CHAPTER   XXX 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE? 

The  Wilmot  Proviso.  The  cession  of  California  and  New 
Mexico  again  raised  the  question  of  what  to  do  about  slavery  in 
the  territories.  When  President  Polk  asked  Congress  for  an  ap- 
propriation to  carry  out  his  annexation  policy,  David  Wilmot,  a 
Congressman  from  Pennsyl- 
vania, offered  a  startling 
amendment.  He  moved  to 
add  a  declaration  that  slav- 
ery should  never  exist  in 
any  territory  acquired  from 
Mexico.  This  famous  Wil- 
mot Proviso  was  a  bugle 
call  rousing  to  action  the 
friends  and  foes  of  slavery. 
Since  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise of  1820,  the  politicians 
had  tried  to  avoid  the  slav- 
ery question,  but  in  spite  of 
their  efforts  it  had  become  a 
national  issue.  The  Wilmot 
Proviso  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives,  but  failed 
in  the  Senate  where  the 
slave  states  were  in  the  ma- 
jority after  the  annexation 
of  Texas.  The  debates  in  Congress  were  carried  on  in  a  tone 
more  and  more  bitter.  Northern  men  frankly  declared  that 
they  would  permit  no  more  slave  states  to  enter  the  Union.  The 
legislatures  of  the  free  states,  and  even  of  Delaware,  declared 
that  slavery  must  be  excluded  from  the  territories. 

369 


Thomas  H.  Benton 

The  senator  from  Missouri  who  ad- 
vised the  people  of  California  to  form  a 
simple  government,  and  to  take  care  of 
themselves  until  Congress  could  provide 
for  them. 


370  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

Southern  leaders,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  that  the  South 
had  a  right  to  share  in  the  territory  which  its  own  blood  and 
treasure  had  helped  to  win.  Calhoun  refused  to  accept  President 
Polk's  suggestion  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  line  be  ex- 
tended across  the  Rockies  to  the  Pacific,  excluding  slavery  north 
of  that  line  in  the  Mexican  lands  as  in  the  Louisiana  country. 
Southern  leaders  now  denied  that  Congress  had  any  right  to 
exclude  slavery  from  the  territories.  The  Constitution  protects 
property  ;  slaves  are  property,  they  said,  hence  the  Constitution 
protects  the  right  to  own  slaves  in  any  territory  just  as  it 
protects  the  right  to  own  horses  and  cattle  there.  Slavery  could 
not  be  excluded  until  the  territory  became  a  state,  and  then 
only  in  case  its  people  chose  to  adopt  a  free  constitution. 

Worst  of  omens,  the  division  on  the  Wilmot  Proviso  was  not 
between  parties,  but  between  sections.  At  the  North,  Democrats 
and  Whigs  were  opposing  slavery,  just  as  southern  Whigs  and 
Democrats  were  united  in  its  defense.  Plainly,  slavery  would 
soon  break  down  old  party  lines.  Already  it  was  dividing  the 
churches ;  in  1844  the  Methodist  Church  split  into  a  northern 
and  a  southern  body,  the  question  at  issue  being  the  right  of  a 
bishop  to  own  slaves.  Shortly  afterwards,  the  Presbyterians 
divided  on  the  question  whether  a  slaveholder  might  be  a 
member  of  their  church.  Slavery  seemed  to  be  a  wedge  splitting 
apart  churches  and  political  parties.  How  long  could  the  Union 
itself  endure,  as  the  wedge  sank  deeper  and  deeper  ? 

Slavery  in  the  United  States  in  1850.  With  the  admission  of 
Wisconsin  in  1848,  the  Union  was  made  up  of  fifteen  free  states 
and  fifteen  slave  states.  The  population  of  the  free  states  was 
13,000,000  ;  that  of  the  slave  states  9,500,000,  of  whom  3,200,000 
were  slaves.  We  must  not  think  of  every  Southerner  as  a  slave 
owner.  On  the  contrary,  less  than  one  third  of  the  white  popula- 
tion of  the  South  owned  slaves.  Then,  too,  many  slave  owners 
owned  only  a  few  slaves  each.  This  was  especially  true  of  Vir- 
ginia and  the  border  states,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Tennes- 
see. Many  of  the  slaves  in  these  states  were  household  servants. 
If  employed  in  the  field,  they  worked  under  the  personal 
direction  of  the  master.     Hence  slavery  in  the  border  states 


THE  OREGON  COMPROMISE 
AND  MEXICAN  CESSIONS 


20O  400  600 

Scale  of  Miles 


110  Longitude  West  of  Greenwich  H 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE?     371 

'r 
was  very  different  from  the  same  institution  in  the  cotton  states, 

where  a  few  planters  owned  large  numbers  of  negroes.  On  the 
large  plantations  of  the  lower  South  the  slaves  usually  worked 
under  overseers.  The  chief  concern  of  many  of  these  men  was 
to  get  as  much  work  as  possible  out  of  each  hand  for  the  slave- 
holder. 

Slaves  were  personal  property,  and  were  sold  in  the  same 
way  as  horses  and  cattle.  One  of  the  worst  evils  of  the  system 
was  the  separation  of  families  by  a  sale  to  different  owners.  The 
more  humane  planters  tried  to  avoid  this  by  refusing  to  sell  the 
husband  apart  from  the  wife,  or  the  mother  away  from  her  very 
young  children.  Slave  auctions  were  common  in  the  larger 
cities  of  the  South,  and  every  southern  newspaper  carried 
advertisements  of  " likely  young  negroes'' for  sale,  or  " negroes 
wanted."  About  twenty-five  thousand  slaves  from  the  border 
states  were  sold  each  year  to  be  taken  farther  south,  into  the 
cotton  states.  Nothing  was  more  dreaded  by  the  Virginia 
slave  than  the  threat  that  he  would  be  sold  down  South.  The 
price  of  cotton  and  of  slaves  generally  went  hand  in  hand.  In 
the  years  from  1850  to  1860,  a  good  field  hand  was  worth  from 
$1000  to  $1500. 

A  few  southern  states  permitted  the  owner  to  instruct 
his  own  slaves  in  reading  or  writing,  but  as  a  rule,  the  negro 
was  kept  in  darkest  ignorance.  The  South  realized  that 
education  would  make  the  slaves  discontented  with  their  lot. 
Slaves  were  generally  instructed  in  religion  ;  they  were  taught  to 
believe  in  God,  and  that  slavery  was  in  accord  with  His  will. 

Parties  and  Candidates  in  1848.  So  far  as  possible,  both  the 
Democratic  and  Whig  parties  avoided  the  slavery  question  in  the 
campaign  of  1848.  The  Democrats  put  forward  as  their  pres- 
idential candidate  Lewis  Cass  of  Michigan,  "  a  northern  man 
with  southern  principles."  The  Democratic  platform  con- 
demned every  effort  by  the  abolitionists  or  others  to  induce 
Congress  to  interfere  with  the  slavery  question.  Cass  tried  to 
please  both  sides  in  the  slavery  dispute  by  his  doctrine  of 
squatter  sovereignty ;  that  is,  letting  the  settlers  in  the 
territories  decide  for  themselves  whether  or  not  they  would  have 


372  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

slavery.  The  Whigs  nominated  General  Zachary  Taylor  of 
Louisiana  for  President,  and  Millard  Fillmore  of  New  York 
for  Vice  President.  They  adopted  no  platform,  relying  for 
victory  on  Taylor's  military  record. 

There  were  many  Democrats  and  Whigs  who  did  not  like 
this  dodging  of  the  slavery  question.   These  men  formed  a  Free 

Soil  party,  with  ex-Presi- 
dent Van  Buren  as  their 
candidate.  The  platform 
of  the  Free  Soil  party  de- 
clared against  slavery  in 
the  strongest  terms  :  "  We 
accept  the  issue  which  the 
slave  power  has  forced  up- 
on us ;  and  to  their  demand 
for  more  slave  states  and 
more  slave  territory,  our 
calm  but  final  answer  is, 
no  more  slave  states  and 
no  more  slave  territory." 
The  voters  of  the  North 
were  not  yet  ready  to  sup- 
port an  anti-slavery  party. 
General  Taylor  had  made  a  splendid  record  as  a  fighter ;  and 
again,  as  in  the  case  of  Jackson  and  Harrison,  the  country  chose 
a  soldier-President. 

The  Discovery  of  Gold  in  California.  Nine  days  before 
California  became  ours  by  the  peace  treaty  with  Mexico,  gold 
was  discovered  near  Fort  Sutter,  in  the  beautiful  Sacramento 
Valley.  The  attempt  to  keep  the  precious  discovery  a  secret 
was  in  vain ;  the  news  soon  leaked  out,  and  from  all  parts  of 
California  men  rushed  to  the  gold  fields.  Business  came  to  a 
standstill,  stores  and  newspaper  offices  closed  down,  towns  were 
left  almost  uninhabited.  Sailors  deserted  from  incoming  ships, 
soldiers  left  their  garrisons,  prisoners  broke  jail  and  fled  to  the 
mines,  followed  by  their  jailers.  "  The  whole  country,"  exclaims 
the  California  Star,  "  from  San  Francisco  to  Los  Angeles,  re- 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE?      373 


sounds  to  the  sordid  cry  of  Gold  !  Gold  ! !  Gold  II!"  The  tidings 
reached  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in  September,  1848.  Then  began 
a  westward  movement  such  as  the  world  had  never  seen. 
Merchants  and  mechanics,  farmers  and  professional  men, 
gamblers  and  thieves,  all  started  on  a  mad  rush  for  the  land  of 
gold,  where  fortunes  were  made  in  a  day. 

How  the  Forty-Niners  Reached  California.  There  were 
three  routes  by  which  men  from  the  East  could  reach  the  gold 
fields.  One  was 
the  long  and 
dangerous  ocean 
voyage  around 
Cape  Horn.  The 
second  route  was 
by  steamer  to 
the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  Here 
the  passengers 
had  to  disem- 
bark, and  travel 
across  the  pesti- 
lence-laden isth- 
mule- 


Sutter's  Mill 


mus     on 

back  and  in  rude  native  boats.  Arriving  at  Panama  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  they  often  had  to  wait  for  weeks  before  securing  passage 
on  a  steamer  for  San  Francisco.  But  most  of  the  gold  seekers 
chose  the  overland  route,  either  by  way  of  Santa  Fe,  or  over  the 
Oregon  Trail  to  the  Humboldt  River,  then  southwest  across  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  This  meant  a  wagon  journey  of 
some  2700  miles  through  swamp  and  desert,  across  mountain 
barriers  and  flooded  lowlands.  There  was  terrible  suffering  from 
heat  and  cold,  from  thirst  and  starvation.  The  slow-moving 
caravans  were  scourged  by  cholera  and  menaced  by  Indian 
attacks.  Still  the  hardy  Forty-Niners  pressed  on,  although 
5000  of  their  number  found  their  graves  along  the  way. 

California  Forms  a  State  Constitution.      Within  the  single 
year  of  1849,  the  population  of  California  leaped  from  6000  to 


374 


SLAVERY   AND   THE    WEST 


85,000.  It  was  such  a  population  as  the  discovery  of  gold  always 
brings.  Every  nationality  of  the  world  was  represented,  as  well 
as  every  type  of  American,  —  honest  laborers  and  adventurers 
for  the  most  part,  together  with  many  gamblers,  thieves,  and 
desperadoes.  Thefts,  drunken  brawls,  and  murders  were  an 
everyday  affair.  Disputes  over  mining  claims  were  usually  settled 
by  the  pistol  or  bowie  knife.  At  length  the  American  instinct 
for  law  and  order  began  to  assert  itself.     Numerous  vigilance 


From  a  contemporary  lithograph  in  the  Library  of  Congress. 

The  Way  They  Go  to  California 


The  imagination  of  the  cartoonist  developed  a  rocket  and  an  airship  line 
to  carry  the  "Forty-Niners"  to  California. 


committees  were  formed  to  hunt  down  and  punish  men  guilty 
of  theft  or  murder.  Their  justice  was  crude  but  swift,  and  lynch 
law  became  the  terror  of  the  criminal.  The  law-abiding  settlers 
were  anxious  to  form  a  permanent,  legal  government,  like  the 
one  they  had  left  in  the  states.  So  they  elected  a  convention 
which  drew  up  a  constitution  forbidding  slavery.  The  people 
adopted  this  constitution  in  November,  1849,  elected  a  governor 
and  legislature,  and  asked  Congress  for  statehood.  Without 
waiting  to  be  organized  as  a  territory,  California  was  knocking 
at  the  door  of  the  Union. 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE?      375 

California  Seeks  Admission  as  a  Free  State.  "  Shall  Cali- 
fornia be  admitted  "as  a  free  state?"  was  the  burning  question 
when  Congress  met  in  December,  1849.  The  people  of  California 
had  forced  this  issue  upon  the  country.  Their  demand  again 
opened  up  the  dreaded  slavery  issue.  A  free  California  would 
mean  that  slavery  was  to  be  shut  out  from  a  large  part  of  the 
region  wrested  from  Mexico,  from  the  land  which  the  South  had 
done  so  much  to  win.  It  would  mean,  too,  that  the  North  would 
have  control  of  Congress ;  for  with  California,  there  would  be 
sixteen  free  states  and  only  fifteen  slave  states.  The  South  was 
a  unit  against  the  admission  of  California.  Southern  Congress- 
men declared  that  they  would  choose  secession,  rather  than  a 
Union  in  which  slavery  was  no  longer  safe. 

Henry  Clay  as  Peacemaker.  A  crisis  was  at  hand.  Who  so 
fitted  to  meet  it  as  the  "  Great  Compromiser,"  Henry  Clay  of 
Kentucky?  After  forty  years  of  active  public  life,  Clay  had 
retired,  broken  in  health,  to  his  home  near  Lexington.  As  the 
political  storm  gathered,  the  legislature  of  Kentucky,  by  unan- 
imous vote,  sent  him  back  to  the  United  States  Senate.  There 
for  the  last  time  we  see  those  three  mighty  leaders,  Clay,  Web- 
ster, and  Calhoun,  whose  places  were  soon  to  be  filled  by  younger 
statesmen. 

"  If  any  one  desires  to  know  the  leading  object  of  my  life," 
said  Clay,  "  the  preservation  of  this  Union  will  furnish  him  the 
key."  To  save  the  Union  in  1850,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  Clay  advised  compromise  and  conciliation.  Both 
North  and  South,  he  declared,  must  make  concessions.  Men 
traveled  hundreds  of  miles  to  hear  that  wonderful  appeal  for  a 
"  Union  of  hearts,"  and  they  were  not  disappointed.  For  two 
days  Kentucky's  great  orator,  then  in  his  seventy-third  year,  his 
body  racked  with  a  severe  cough,  cast  the  spell  of  his  eloquence 
over  the  Senate.  His  plea  was  for  compromise,  for  good  will  and 
friendliness,  for  mutual  concession  and  forbearance,  and  above 
all,  for  union. 

The  Compromise  of  1850.  What  was  Clay's  plan?  With 
some  changes,  his  proposals  were  finally  adopted  as  the  Compro- 
mise of  1850. 


376  SLAVERY   AND   THE    WEST 

2 

(1)  The  admission  of  California  as  a  free  state. 

(2)  The  organization  of  New  Mexico  and*  Utah  as  territories, 
the  question  of  slavery  to  be  decided  by  the  settlers  when  their 
territories  became  states. 

(3)  Payment  of  $10,000,000  to  Texas  for  giving  up  to  the 
United  States  the  land  which  she  claimed  in  New  Mexico. 

(4)  The  slave  trade  (but  not  slavery)  prohibited  in  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

(5)  A  strict  fugitive  slave  law. 

The  Great  Debate  in  the  Senate :  Calhoun's  Speech.  The 
Senate  listened  on  March  4  to  a  solemn  protest  against  the 
compromise  from  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  dying  leader  of  the 
South.  Calhoun  was  too  feeble  to  deliver  his  carefully  written 
speech,  so  it  was  read  for  him  by  another  Senator.  Calhoun's 
speech  was  a  message  of  despair.  No  compromise  would  save 
the  Union,  for  the  balance  of  power  between  the  North  and  the 
South  had  already  been  destroyed.  There  was  no  hope  of  saving 
the  Union  unless  the  North  should  agree  :  (1)  to  give  the  South 
an  equal  right  in  the  territory  acquired  from  Mexico  ;  (2)  to  ful- 
fill its  duty  to  return  fugitive  slaves ;  (3)  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
anti-slavery  agitation.  "  If  you  of  the  North  will  not  do  this, 
then  let  our  southern  states  separate  and  depart  in  peace." 

Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech.  The  greatest  orator  in 
the  Senate  had  not  yet  spoken ;  but  on  the  seventh  of  March, 
Webster  delivered  his  famous  speech  in  support  of  the  Com- 
promise. Webster's  dislike  of  slavery  was  strong,  but  his  love 
for  the  Union  was  stronger.  With  Clay,  he  believed  compromise 
necessary  to  save  the  Union.  Webster  began  :  "I  wish  to  speak 
to-day,  not  as  a  Massachusetts  man,  nor  as  a  northern  man,  but 
as  an  American.  ...  I  speak  to-day  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Union."  He  said  that  it  was  unnecessary  to  prohibit 
slavery  in  New  Mexico  ;  nature,  the  climate  and  the  soil  of  the 
country,  had  made  slavery  impossible  there.  "  I  would  not 
take  pains  to  reaffirm  an  ordinance  of  Nature,  nor  to  re  enact 
the  will  of  God.  And  I  would  put  in  no  Wilmot  Proviso,  for 
the  purpose  of  a  taunt  or  a  reproach."  The  North,  continued 
Webster,  had  failed  to  perform  its  duty  to  return  fugitive  slaves  ; 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE?     377 


and  in  this  matter  "  the  South  has  a  right  to  complain."  He 
condemned  the  abolition  societies ;  in  twenty  years  "  they  had 
produced  nothing  good  or  valuable." 

The  North  was  stunned  at  Webster's  speech.  The  anti- 
slavery  men  thought  that  he  had  deserted  their  cause;  the 
abolitionists  were  enraged.  Horace  Mann  wrote  :  "Webster  is 
a  fallen  star !  Lucifer  de- 
scending from  Heaven ! " 
Theodore  Parker  said  :  "I 
know  no  deed  in  American 
history  done  by  a  son  of 
New  England  to  which  I 
can  compare  this  but  the 
act  of  Benedict  Arnold. 
The  only  rea- 
sonable way  in  which  we 
can  estimate  this  speech 
is  as  a  bid  for  the  Presi- 
dency." Whatever  Web- 
ster's motive,  his  Seventh 
of  March  speech  made  it 
impossible  for  him  ever  to 
become  President. 

The  anti-slavery  cause 
found  new  champions  in  two  men  who  had  just  entered  the 
Senate,  William  H.  Seward  of  New  York,  and  Salmon  P.  Chase 
of  Ohio.  Both  Seward  and  Chase  opposed  Clay's  plan ;  they 
demanded  that  slavery  be  prohibited  in  the  territories,  and  they 
denounced  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  Against  the  Compromise, 
too,  was  the  new  leader  of  the  South,  Jefferson  Davis.  "  Under 
Clay's  plan,"  asserted  Davis,  "the  South  came  away  with 
empty  hands,  while  the  North  took  everything." 

The  Compromise  Adopted.  Thus  the  bitter  debate  dragged 
on  for  nine  months,  until  finally  Clay's  proposals  were  referred 
to  a  committee  of  thirteen  Senators.  Meantime,  President 
Taylor,  who  was  opposed  to  the  compromise,  suddenly  died, 
and  Vice  President  Fillmore  became  President.  Congress  at  last 


Millard  Fillmore 


c~-%  ~) 

378  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 


passed  the  compromise  measures  in  four  separate  acts,  which 
were  signed  by  President  Fillmore.  The  country  seemed  pleased 
with  the  result.  Excitement  gave  way  to  a  general  feeling  of 
relief  that  the  vexed  slavery  question  was  at  last  settled.  En- 
thusiastic Union  meetings  at  New  York  City,  Philadelphia, 
Cincinnati,  and  New  Orleans  approved  the  action  of  Congress. 
The  Missouri  Compromise  had  brought  peace  for  thirty  years ; 
was  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  new  compromise  would 
prove  equally  successful  ?  Might  it  not  create,  as  Clay  and  Web- 
ster hoped,  a  Union  of  hearts  as  well  as  a  Union  of  law? 

The  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  The  Compromise  of  1850  did  not 
bring  about  the  hoped-for  peace.  To  the  North,  the  hateful 
feature  of  that  compromise  was  the  new  Fugitive  Slave  Law. 
Our  Constitution,  indeed,  declared  that  runaway  slaves  should 
be  returned  to  their  owners ;  and  Congress  in  1793  had  passed 
an  act  telling  how  this  should  be  done.  But  laws  depend  upon 
the  loyalty  and  good  faith  of  the  people  to  carry  them  out ;  and 
the  people  of  the  North  would  not  obey  a  law  which  made  it 
their  duty  to  send  men  back  to  slavery.  By  1850,  thousands  of 
fugitive  slaves  were  living  in  the  North;  and  the  South,  as 
Webster  said,  had  just  cause  for  complaint. 

If  northern  opinion  had  made  the  law  of  1793  a  dead  letter, 
what  could  be  hoped  for  from  the  severe  act  of  1850?  Written 
by  a  slaveholder,  the  new  law  left  no  chance  for  the  negro.  There 
was  no  jury  trial,  as  Clay  and  Webster  had  wished.  Instead, 
federal  officers  (known  as  United  States  Commissioners)  were  to 
decide  whether  the  negro  claimed  by  a  slaveholder  was  really 
his  property.  The  negro  could  not  even  testify  in  his  own  behalf. 
The  law  made  it  the  duty  of  all  good  citizens,  if  requested,  to  aid 
in  the  capture  of  runaway  slaves ;  while  any  one  who  helped  a 
fugitive  to  escape  was  liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment.  Worst 
feature  of  all,  negroes  who  had  been  living  in  peace  and  quiet  at 
the  North  for  many  years  might  be  arrested  and  sent  back  to 
slavery.  In  alarm,  thousands  of  them  fled  to  Canada,  to  take 
refuge  on  the  British  soil  that  made  men  free. 

The  fugitive  slave  act  offended  the  conscience  of  the  North, 
at  last  strongly  aroused  on  the  question  of  slavery.   At  Faneuil 


379 


380  SLAVERY   AND    THE   WEST 

Hall,  Boston's  cradle  of  liberty,  a  monster  mass  meeting  con- 
demned the  law.  From  thousands  of  northern  pulpits,  ministers 
declared  it  contrary  to  the  laws  of  God.  A  Boston  mob  took  a 
fugitive  slave  named  Shadrach  out  of  the  hands  of  the  officers, 
and  sent  him  to  Canada.  At  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  it  cost  a 
Virginia  slave  owner  $1450  to  secure  the  return  of  two  slaves 
valued  at  $1500.  As  Senator  Charles  Sumner  had  predicted, 
the  North  would  not  enforce  a  law  that  struck  at  the  deepest 
moral  convictions  of  its  people.  Northern  men  might  tolerate 
slavery  at  the  South  ;  it  was  quite  another  matter  to  expect  them 
to  aid  in  dragging  some  poor  runaway  back  to  slavery. 

The  Underground  Railroad.  For  many  years  the  abolitionists 
had  been  helping  slaves  to  escape.  The  means  by  which  they  did 
this  was  known  as  the  "  Underground  Railroad."  This  was  not 
really  a  railroad,  nor  was  it  underground.  It  was  a  chain  of  the 
homes  of  abolitionists,  where  fleeing  slaves  might  find  refuge. 
Each  house  was  called  a  station,  and  the  route  stretched  from  the 
border  slave  states  to  Canada,  or  to  some  large  city  in  a  free 
state.  On  reaching  the  first  station,  the  fugitive  was  clothed,  fed, 
and  hidden,  until  he  could  be  taken  to  the  next  station,  perhaps 
twenty  miles  north.  Even  in  distant  Louisiana,  the  slaves  knew 
that  freedom  lay  in  the  direction  of  the  north  star ;  but  they 
knew,  too,  that  the  journey  was  long  and  filled  with  perils.  In 
fifty  years,  nearly  fifty  thousand  slaves  made  good  their  escape ; 
but  three  millions  of  their  brothers  remained  in  bondage.  The 
Underground  Railroad  had  two  important  results :  (1)  The 
South  was  made  more  bitter  toward  the  North,  where  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  held  in  open  contempt.  (2)  Slavery 
became  more  hateful  to  northern  men,  who  heard  from  the 
escaped  slaves  sad  stories  of  their  sufferings. 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  It  remained  for  a  woman,  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe,  to  deliver  the  greatest  blow  yet  struck  against 
slavery.  Her  novel,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  was  "  an  outburst  of 
passion  against  the  wrong  done  to  a  race."  Without  question, 
it  exaggerated  the  evils  of  slavery ;  but  thousands  of  northern 
readers  accepted  it  as  a  true  picture  of  the  slave  system.  The 
success  of  the  book  surprised  even  its  author.   In  the  first  year, 


SHALL  THE  NEW  TERRITORY  BE  SLAVE  OR  FREE?     381 

1852,  three  hundred  thousand  copies  were  sold ;  eight  printing 
presses  running  night  and  day  could  not  keep  up  with  the  popu- 
lar demand.  At  once  dramatized,  the  play  was  an  immense  " 
success.  Thousands  of  spectators  thrilled  at  the  escape  of  Eliza, 
and  wept  over  the  tragic  fate  of  Uncle  Tom.  Well  might 
Rufus  Choate  predict :  "  That  book  will  make  two  millions  of 
abolitionists."  The  northern  boys  who  read  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin 
soon  became  voters,  and  their  votes  were  cast  for  the  new 
Republican  party,  formed  to  oppose  the  extension  of  slavery. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XXI- XXII. 

Garrison,  G.  P.,  Westward  Extension,  chs.  XVI- XVII,  XIX- XX. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  VII, 
chs.  LXXXI,  LXXXV  ;  VIII,  ch.  LXXXVI. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :   Fugitive  Slave  Law,  pp.  390-393. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the   United  States,  I,  chs.  I-V. 

Smith,  T.  C.,  Parties  and  Slavery  (American  Nation  Series),  chs.  I— II. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Slavery  in  1850.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  XXI  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by 
Contemporaries,  III,  chs.  IV,  XXVI,  XXVIII  ;  McLaughlin, 
A.  C.,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  chs.  XXXVI- 
XXXVII. 

2.  The  Free  Soil  Party.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and 
Politics  in  the  United  States,  p.  458  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political 
Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  VI. 

3.  California.  McLaughlin,  A.  C.,  Readings  in  the  History  of 
the  American  Nation,  ch.  XXXII  ;  Mo  wry,  W.  A.,  Territorial 
Growth  of  the   United  States,  ch.  VI. 

4.  Henry  Clay.  Harding,  S.  B.,  Select  Orations  Illustrating  Amer- 
ican History  (Compromise  of  1850  Speech),  pp.  267-291  ;  Schurz, 
Carl,  Henry  Clay,  2  vols.  (American  Statesmen  Series). 

5.  The  Compromise  of  1850.  Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History 
told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  ch.  Ill  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United 
States,  II,  chs.  IX-X. 

6.  Daniel  Webster.  Lodge,  H.  0.,  Daniel  Webster  (American 
Statesmen  Series). 


382  SLAVERY   AND    THE    WEST 


SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 


1.  California  and  the  Forty-Niners.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  West- 
ward Movement,  pp.  175-191  ;  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of  Amer- 
ican Expansion,  ch.  VI  ;  Drake,  S.  A.,  Making  of  the  Great  West, 
pp.  271-284  ;  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  ch. 
XIII;  Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History,  ch.  XXVII; 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American  Frontier,  ch.  VII  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.; 
Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  XXVIII  ;  Wright,  H.  C, 
American  Progress,  ch.  XVI. 

2.  The  Underground  Railway.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  I,  ch.  XIV  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History, 
VII,  pp.  110-115. 

3.  Daniel  Webster.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  A  New  Nation,  pp.  138- 
159  ;  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,  ch.  X. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 


THE    STRUGGLE    FOR   KANSAS 


The  Presidential  Campaign  of  1852.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
of  1850  brought  disaster  upon  the  political  party  in  power. 
When  the  Whigs  met  in  their  national  convention  of  1852,  they 
did  not  dare  to  nominate  President  Fillmore,  for  he  had  signed 
the  measure  that  was  so 
hateful  to  the  Northr 
Henry  Clay,  founder  of  the 
Whig  party,  and  thrice  its 
candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency, lay  on  his  death  bed  ; 
while  Webster's  Seventh  of 
March  speech  made  his 
nomination  hopeless.  The 
Whigs  had  won  two  presi- 
dential campaigns  by  nom- 
inating successful  soldiers ; 
they  now  planned  to  win 
a  third  victory  by  naming 
General  Winfield  Scott,  the 
hero  of  Mexico.  But  even 
Scott's  military  record 
could  not  save  his  party 
from  a  crushing  defeat. 
"  Here  lies  the  Whig  party/'  said  a  wit  of  the  times,  "  which 
died  of  an  effort  to  swallow  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law." 

After  a  long  struggle  in  the  Democratic  convention,  the 
nomination  went  to  General  Franklin  Pierce  of  New  Hampshire. 
He  was  a  "  dark  horse  "  candidate ;  that  is,  a  man  not  thought 
of  or  discussed  as  a  possible  choice  before  the  convention  met. 

383 


Franklin  Pierce 

From  a  photograph  in  the  New  York 
Public  Library. 


384  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

Pierce  had  won  little  fame  either  as  a  lawyer  or  statesman ;  he 
had  served  in  the  Mexican  campaign,  but  was  not,  like  Scott,  a 
distinguished  soldier.  The  Whigs  had  a  good  deal  of  fun  over 
Pierce's  military  record.  They  published  a  campaign  book  of  a 
half  dozen  pages,  one  inch  by  one  half  inch  in  size,  printed  in 
the  smallest  type,  and  entitled :  "  The  Military  Services  of 
General  Franklin  Pierce."  In  spite  of  this  ridicule,  the  "  dark 
horse  "  won  the  presidential  race  of  1852.  Pierce  easily  defeated 
General  Scott  as  well  as  the  Free  Soil  candidate,  receiving  254 
electoral  votes  to  42  for  Scott. 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  When  President  Pierce  took  the 
oath  of  office  in  1853,  the  country  seemed  about  to  enter  upon  an 
era  of  quiet  prosperity.  The  excitement  over  the  Compromise  of 
1850  had  died  away ;  the  Democratic  party,  restored  to  power, 
was  pledged  to  maintain  that  Compromise ;  and  apparently  the 
slavery  issue  was  settled  for  all  time.  Within  a  year  after  the 
inauguration,  the  country  was  suddenly  awakened  from  its 
dream  of  tranquillity.  The  new  cause  of  discord  was  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill,  which  proposed  to  throw  open  to  slavery  half  a 
million  square  miles  of  free  territory.  Strangely  enough,  this 
proposal  came  not  from  the  South,  but  from  Senator  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  of  Illinois.  Talented,  popular,  and  ambitious, 
Douglas  hoped  to  be  the  standard-bearer  of  the  Democratic 
party  in  the  next  presidential  campaign.  The  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill,  his  opponents  declared,  was  his  bid  for  southern  sup- 
port. 

Between  the  Missouri  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  a 
vast  region  larger  than  all  the  free  states  east  of  the  Rockies, 
but  containing  less  than  one  thousand  white  inhabitants.  It 
embraced  what  is  now  the  states  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  the 
Dakotas,  Montana,  and  parts  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  All 
of  this  territory  formed  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase ;  all  of 
it  lay  north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30' ;  on  every  foot  of  its  soil 
slavery  was  "  forever  prohibited  "  by  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
This  was  the  domain  that  Senator  Douglas  proposed  to  organize 
into  two  territories,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  in  which  the  settlers 
might  have  slavery  or  not,  as  they  chose. 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   KANSAS 


385 


Repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  The  measure  intro- 
duced by  Senator  Douglas  declared  the  Missouri  Compromise 
void.  The  voters  of  each  territory  were  to  decide  for  themselves 
the  question  of  slavery.  "  If  they  wish  slavery,"  argued  Douglas, 
"  they  have  a  right  to  it ;  if  they  do  not  want  it,  you  should  not 
force  it  upon  them."  This  was  the  famous  principle  of  popular 
sovereignty,  first  put  for- 
ward by  Cass  and  now 
championed  by  Douglas. 
The  South  was  delighted 
with  the  plan,  for  it  gave 
that  section  more  than  its 
own  leaders  ever  dreamed 
of  demanding.  But  at  the 
North,  a  storm  was  rising 
such  as  the  country  had 
never  seen.  Hundreds  of 
newspapers  attacked  the 
bill  as  a  violation  of  plighted 
faith.  For  thirty-four  years 
the  Missouri  Compromise 
had  been  regarded  as  a 
sacred  compact.  That  com- 
pact was  now  to  be  set 
aside,  and  485,000  square 
miles  of  free  territory  thrown  open  to  slavery.  Mass  meetings 
throughout  the  North  denounced  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill, 
and  burned  its  author  in  effigy.  Three  thousand  New  England 
clergymen  signed  a  petition  against  the  measure. 

Amid  this  storm  of  protest  from  his  own  section,  Douglas 
stood  unmoved.  "  The  Little  Giant,"  as  his  friends  loved  to 
call  him,  was  a  brilliant  orator,  a  shrewd  and  popular  political 
leader.  ^Most  of  his  party  members  in  Congress  followed  where 
he^lerr.  MVith  whip  and  spur,  Douglas  carried  his  bill  through 
the  Senate  and  House,  and  President  Pierce's  signature  made  it 
the  law  of  the  land.  As  Senators  Chase  and  Sumner  walked 
down  the  steps  of  the  Capitol,  they  heard  the  booming  of  cannon 


Stephen  A.  Douglas 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collec- 
tion, War  Department,  Washington. 


386  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

from  the  navy  yard  announcing  the  triumph  of  Douglas.  "  They 
celebrate  a  present  victory,"  said  Chase  to  his  friend,  "  but  the 
echoes  which  they  awake  will  never  rest  until  slavery  itself  shall 
die."  The  North  was  beaten,  but  it  was  aroused. 

The  Struggle  for  Kansas.  Southerners  took  it  for  granted 
that  Nebraska,  the  northernmost  of  the  two  territories,  would 
become  a  free  state ;  but  they  hoped  that  Kansas,  which  lay  just 
west  of  Missouri,  would  be  settled  by  slaveholders.  The  North 
was  determined  that  Kansas,  as  well  as  Nebraska,  should  enter 
the  Union  as  a  free  state.  The  struggle  began  to  see  which 
section  could  send  the  larger  number  of  settlers  into  Kansas 
before  the  vote  was  taken  on  the  question  of  slavery.  From 
western  Missouri,  pro-slavery  men  crossed  into  Kansas,  where 
they  built  towns  and  made  ready  to  claim  the  territory  for 
slavery.  From  the  free  states,  too,  settlers  were  pouring  into 
Kansas.  The  New  England  Emigrant  Aid  Society  was  formed 
in  Massachusetts  to  send  out  northern  settlers.  The  work  of 
this  company  angered  the  pro-slavery  men,  and  they  sent  back 
to  Missouri  for  reinforcements. 

When  it  came  time  to  elect  a  legislature  in  Kansas,  five 
thousand  well-armed  Missourians  marched  across  the  border  to 
vote  for  the  pro-slavery  candidates.  The  South  considered  that 
this  invasion  was  justified  because  of  the  activity  of  the  Emi- 
grant Aid  Society  in  sending  northern  settlers  to  Kansas.  The 
legislature  chosen  by  Missouri  votes  at  once  passed  laws  estab- 
lishing slavery,  and  punishing  with  death  any  one  who  aided 
a  slave  to  escape.  The  anti-slavery  men  decided  that  they 
would  not  obey  a  government  elected  by  voters  from  another 
state,  and  they  proceeded  to  organize  a  government  of  their  own. 
Adopting  a  constitution  that  forbade  slavery,  they  elected  a 
legislature  and  asked  Congress  to  admit  Kansas  as  a  free  state. 
Thus  Kansas  had  two  rival  and  hostile  governments,  each 
claiming  to  be  the  lawful  government  of  the  territory.  President 
Pierce  took  sides  in  favor  of  the  pro-slavery  men,  and  announced 
that  he  would  support  their  government. 

Civil  War  in  Kansas.  Kansas  was  now  in  a  state  of  civil 
war.    Bands  of  armed  men  marched  up  and  down  the  country, 


-1 

THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   KANSAS  387 

killing  and  robbing  the  settlers.  Men  went  out  to  plow  in  com- 
panies of  five  or  ten,  armed  to  the  teeth.  "  Whenever  two  men 
approached  each  other,"  says  one  writer,  "  they  came  up  pistol 
in  hand,  and  the  first  salutation  was :  Free-state  or  pro-slave? 
It  not  unfrequently  happened  that  the  next  sound 
was  the  report  of  a  pistol."  "  Border  ruffians  "  was  the  name 
applied  to  the  unkempt  but  well-armed  bands  from  Mis- 
souri. "  Black  Republicans  "  and  "  Abolitionists,"  their  op- 
ponents called  the  free  soil  men  from  the  North. 

One  day  the  town  of  Lawrence  was  attacked  by  the  pro- 
slavery  men,  and  several  of  its  buildings  burned.  Three  days 
later,  a  terrible  revenge  was  taken  by  John  Brown,  a  fanatical 
leader  who  believed  that  slavery  must  be  wiped  out  in  blood. 
At  midnight  his  band  dragged  five  pro-slavery  men  from  their 
cabins,  and  butchered  them  in  cold  blood.  Thus  violence 
was  met  with  violence,  bloodshed  with  bloodshed.  Anarchy  -  I 
reigned  supreme  throughout  the  territory,  and  "Bleeding  Kan- 
sas "  became  the  topic  of  the  hour  at  the  North,  popular 
sovereignty  was  not  working  out  as  Douglas  had  predicted. 

Kansas  Lost  to  Slavery.  The  conflict  raged  in  Kansas  for 
three  years ;  but  by  1857  it  was  plain  that  the  territory  was  lost 
to  slavery.  The  settlers  from  the  free  states  largely  outnumbered 
the  pro-slavery  men  ;  and  if  a  fair  election  could  be  held,  slavery 
was  doomed.  The  only  hope  for  the  slavery  men  was  that 
Congress  might  admit  Kansas  under  the  Lecompton  constitu- 
tion. This  was  a  slave  constitution,  drawn  up  by  a  convention 
which  did  not  submit  it  to  a  popular  vote.  James  Buchanan,  who 
had  been  elected  President  in  1856,  advised  Congress  to  admit 
Kansas  as  a  slave  state.  Douglas  boldly  opposed  this  plan. 
True  to  his  principle  of  popular  sovereignty,  the  Illinois  Senator 
denounced  the  Lecompton  constitution  as  a  fraud ;  it  had  not 
been  submitted  to  the  people  of  Kansas,  and  did  not  express 
their  will. 

Congress  decided  to  submit  the  issue  to  the  voters  of  Kansas, 
who  rejected  the  Lecompton  constitution  by  a  vote  of  11,000 
to  1900.  By  this  time  the  anti-slavery  men  had  secured  control 
of  the  territorial  legislature.     A  new  constitution  prohibiting 


THE   STRUGGLE    FOR   KANSAS  389 

slavery  was  drawn  up,  and  the  vote  in  its  favor  was  double  that 
cast  against  it.  Kansas  was  admitted  as  a  free  state  in  1861, 
while  the  southern  states  were  seceding  from  the  Union. 

Results  of  the  Slavery  Contest.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act, 
and  the  fight  for  Kansas  which  it  brought  on,  had  far-reaching 
results : 

(1)  This  contest  sealed  the  doom  of  the  Whig  party.  The 
party  of  Clay,  Webster,  and  Fillmore  was  the  party  of  com- 
promise, and  the  day  of  compromise  was  past.  Southern  Whigs 
realized  that  their  party  could  no  longer  be  trusted  to  protect 
slavery,  so  they  united  with  the  Democrats.  Most  of  the 
northern  Whigs  joined  the  new  anti-slavery  party. 

(2)  The  Republican  party  was  formed  to  oppose  the  extension 
of  slavery  in  the  territories.  This  party  was  made  up  of  three 
groups.  First,  the  northern  Whigs,  men  like  Lincoln,  Seward, 
Wade,  and  Greeley,  who  had  long  been  fighting  the  battle  against 
slavery.  Second,  Free  Soilers,  whose  campaign  cry  of  "  no  more 
slave  territory  "  became  the  slogan  of  the  Republicans.  Third, 
northern  Democrats  opposed  to  slavery,  who  broke  with  their 
party  when  Senator  Douglas  brought  about  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise. 

(3)  The  bloodshed  in  Kansas,  and  the  refusal  of  the  North  to 
enforce  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  showed  how  bitter  was  the  feeling 
between  the  two  sections.  The  North  looked  upon  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  as  a  breach  of  faith ;  the  South  pointed 
to  Kansas  as  proof  that  the  North  was  determined  to  destroy 
slavery.  By  creating  mutual  hatred  and  distrust,  the  Kansas 
struggle  hastened  the  Civil  War. 

(4)  The  exciting  events  of  the  slavery  contest  roused  Lincoln's 
political  ambition,  and  led  him  to  become  a  candidate  against 
Douglas  for  the  United  States  Senate. 

First  National  Campaign  of  the  Republican  Party.  The 
Republican  party  was  organized  at  Jackson,  Michigan,  by  an 
immense  mass  meeting  of  men  opposed  to  the  extension  of 
slavery.  They  adopted  the  name  "  Republican,"  and  invited 
the  voters  in  other  states  to  unite  with  them.  Resolutions  were 
adopted,  the  first  Republican  platform,  declaring  that  slavery 


390  SLAVERY  AND   THE    WEST 

was  "  a  moral,  social,  and  political  evil."  The  new  party  waged 
its  first  presidential  campaign  in  1856,  and  it  proved  a  most 
exciting  contest.  The  struggle  in  Kansas  was  the  issue.  The 
Republicans  asserted  that  Congress  had  no  right  to  establish 
slavery,  but  that  it  could  and  ought  to  abolish  it  in  the  ter- 
ritories. Their  candidate  for  President  was  John  C.  Fremont 
of  California ;  their  campaign  slogan,  "  Free  speech,  free  press, 
free  soil,  Fre  —  mont,  and  Victory  !"  The  South  denounced  the 
Republican  party  as  a  sectional  party,  formed  to  destroy 
slavery.  "  If  Fremont  is  elected,"  said  Governor  Wise  of 
Virginia,  "  there  will  be  a  revolution.  We  will  not  remain  in 
confederacy  with  enemies."  Fremont  was  defeated  by  the 
Democratic  candidate,  James  Buchanan  of  Pennsylvania,  but 
the  Democrats  did  not  win  an  easy  victory.  In  their  first  national 
contest,  the  Republicans  carried  eleven  of  the  sixteen  free 
states,  and  cast  1,300,000  votes  for  their  candidates. 

REFERENCES   FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXIII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  ch.  VI. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  VIII, 
chs.  XC-XCI. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory:    Kansas- Nebraska  Act,  pp.  405-420. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  V  ;  II,  chs.  VII- 
VIII. 

Smith,  T.  C,  Parties  and  Slavery,  chs.  IV,  VII,  IX,  XI. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR   TEACHERS 
1.  The  New  Republican  Party.     Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government 
and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  p.  448  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political 
Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  VI. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1 .  The  Struggle  for  Kansas.  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great 
West,  pp.  290-307;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VII,  pp.  164- 
168  ;   Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch  XXIX. 

2.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act.  Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  ch.  XV  ;  Great  Epochs,  VII,  pp.  144-149. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 


'  *■/ 


THE  CRISIS  OF  SECESSION 

The  Dred  Scott  Decision,  1857.  Two  days  after  President 
Buchanan  was  inaugurated,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  gave  its  famous  decision  in  the  Dred  Scott  case.  Dred 
Scott  was  a  Missouri  slave  whose  master,  an  army  surgeon, 
had  taken  him  first  into  Illinois,  then  to  Minnesota  Territory. 
In  Illinois,  slavery  was  pro- 
hibited by  the  Northwest 
Ordinance  and  by  the  state 
constitution ;  while  Minne- 
sota was  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory, from  which  slavery 
was  excluded  by  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise.  After 
two  years'  residence  in  Min- 
nesota, Scott  was  taken 
back  to  Missouri.  Many 
years  afterwards,  he  brought 
suit  in  the  Missouri  courts 
to  recover  his  freedom  on 
the  ground  that  his  resi- 
dence in  free  territory  had 
made  him  a  free  man.  De- 
feated in  the  Missouri  court,  Scott  carried  his  case  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  for  final  decision. 

Two  important  questions  were  passed  upon  by  that  tribunal. 
First,  could  a  negro  whose  ancestors  had  been  sold  as  slaves  be- 
come a  citizen  of  Missouri?  To  this  question,  the  answer  of  the 
court  was  "  no."  The  negro,  said  Chief  Justice  Taney,  could  not 

391 


James  Buchanan 


392  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

possibly  become  a  citizen,  for  the  Constitution  was  not  intended 
to  apply  to  any  but  the  white  race.  When  the  Constitution  was 
adopted,  negroes  were  considered  "  so  far  inferior  that  they  had 
no  rights  which  the  white  man  was  bound  to  respect."  Since 
Dred  Scott  was  not  a  citizen,  he  could  not  bring  suit  in  the 
United  States  Court. 

The  Missouri  Compromise  Held  Unconstitutional.  The  case 
was  now  really  disposed  of ;  but  hoping  to  settle  the  slavery 
dispute  for  all  time,  the  court  declared  that  Congress  had  no 
right  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  territories.  Hence  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  was  null  and  void.  The  slaveholder  had  a 
right  to  take  his  slaves  into  any  territory  of  the  United  States 
and  hold  them  as  slaves,  in  spite  of  any  law  of  Congress  or  of  the 
territory.  Slaves  were  property,  the  same  as  horses  and  mules ; 
and  ownership  of  property  was  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States.  Hence  the  slaveholder  had  the  same  right 
to  take  his  property  into  Minnesota  or  Kansas  that  the  northern 
settler  had  to  take  his  live  stock  there. 

The  decision  in  this  case  was  a  staggering  blow  to  the  North. 
The  Republican  party  had  been  formed  to  oppose  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  into  the  territories.  The  decision  cut  the  ground 
from  under  its  feet,  for  it  opened  every  territory  in  the  United 
States  to  slavery.  "  What  are  you  going  to  do  about  it  ?  "  was  the 
taunt  of  the  delighted  South.  Apparently,  the  highest  court  of 
the  land  had  raised  up  a  mighty  bulwark  for  slavery.  The 
Republicans  attacked  the  decision  as  an  outrage  upon  history 
and  justice.  Abraham  Lincoln  declared  :  "  If  I  were  in  Congress, 
and  a  vote  were  to  come  up  on  a  question  whether  slavery  should 
be  prohibited  in  a  new  territory,  in  spite  of  the  Dred  Scott 
decision,  I  would  vote  that  it  should."  Instead  of  settling  the 
slavery  issue,  the  Dred  Scott  decision  added  fresh  fuel  to  the 
flame. 

Lincoln's  Campaign  against  Douglas.  The  state  of  Illinois 
was  the  scene  in  1858  of  one  of  the  most  exciting  political 
campaigns  in  our  history.  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  the  foremost 
leader  of  the  Democratic  party,  was  a  candidate  for  reelection 
to  the  United  States  Senate.   To  oppose  Douglas,  the  Republi- 


THE   CRISIS   OF   SECESSION  393 

cans  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln,  a  man  as  yet  almost  unknown 
outside  of  his  own  state.  At  first  the  contest  seemed  an  unequal 
one.  Douglas  was  a  leader  of  national  reputation,  a  man  of  at- 
tractive personality,  a  brilliant  debater  who  had  never  met  his 
equal  in  the  Senate  or  before  a  popular  audience.  Lincoln  was 
loved  and  trusted  by  his  neighbors,  but  he  had  no  such  hold  on 
the  voters  of  Illinois  as  the  "Little  Giant."  Tall,  gaunt,  and 
awkward,  wearing  ill-fitting  clothes,  his  voice  high  and  shrill, 
his  dark,  wrinkled  face  clouded  by  a  look  of  habitual  melancholy, 
Lincoln  suffered  in  comparison  with  his  brilliant  adversary. 
But  in  Lincoln's  favor  was  his  earnest  sincerity,  his  homely 
illustrations  that  every  one  understood,  his  power  to  state  a 
truth  so  clearly  that  it  carried  conviction  to  the  hearts  of  his 
hearers.  Whatever  the  voter  might  think  of  Lincoln's  views, 
he  knew  that  he  was  listening  to  an  honest  man. 

The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  Soon  after  the  campaign 
began,  Lincoln  challenged  Douglas  to  debate  the  issues  before 
the  voters  of  Illinois.  Douglas  accepted  the  challenge,  and  seven 
joint  debates  were  arranged.  The  meetings  were  held  in  the 
open  air,  for  no  hall  could  hold  the  thousands  of  eager  listeners. 
In  his  speech  accepting  the  Republican  nomination,  Lincoln 
had  declared  against  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the  ter- 
ritories. Even  his  friends  were  startled  when  he  said :  "  A 
house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  govern- 
ment cannot  endure  half  slave  and  half  free.  I  do  not  expect 
the  house  to  fall  —  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided. 
It  will  become  all  one  thing,  or  all  the  other." 

Douglas  replied  that  Lincoln's  "  house  divided  "  doctrine 
meant  a  war  of  sections,  the  North  against  the  South,  free  states 
against  slave  states.  Each  candidate  prepared  a  list  of  questions 
for  his  opponent  to  answer.  One  of  Lincoln's  questions  put 
Douglas  in  a  position  where  he  must  answer  either  to  satisfy 
the  Illinois  voters  and  offend  the  South,  or  to  please  the  South 
and  lose  Illinois.  This  question  was :  "  Can  the  people  of  a 
territory  exclude  slavery  before  the  formation  of  a  state  consti- 
tution?" Douglas  said  that  the  people  of  a  territory  could 
exclude  slavery  by  passing  "  unfriendly  "  laws  against  it,  or  by 


394  SLAVERY   AND   THE    WEST 

failing  to  adopt  measures  to  protect  it.  Douglas  could  not  have 
been  elected  Senator  had  he  answered  in  any  other  way;  but 
from  the  moment  he  made  this  statement,  the  South  looked 
upon  him  as  a  traitor.  Some  of  Lincoln's  friends  thought  that  he 
was  making  a  mistake  by  proposing  this  question.  "  I  am  after 
larger  game/'  he  told  them ;  "  if  Douglas  answers  as  you  say  he 
will,  he  can  never  be  President,  and  the  battle  of  1860  is  worth 
a  hundred  of  this." 

The  whirlwind  campaign  at  last  drew  to  a  close.  Douglas 
made  one  hundred  and  thirty  speeches  in  three  months,  Lincoln 
almost  as  many.  The  "  Little  Giant  "  won  the  senatorship,  but 
his  victory  cost  him  the  greater  prize  of  the  presidency.  The 
Lincoln-Douglas  debates  were  published  in  book  form,  and  were 
read  all  over  the  Union.  Slowly  but  surely,  Lincoln's  speeches 
began  to  lift  him  into  recognition  as  a  national  leader.  "  I  am 
glad  I  made  the  late  race,"  he  wrote  to  a  friend.  "  It  gave  me  a 
hearing  on  the  great  question  of  the  age,  which  I  could  have  had 
in  no  other  way.  Though  I  now  sink  out  of  view,  and  shall  be 
forgotten,  I  believe  I  have  made  some  marks  which  will  tell  for 
the  cause  of  civil  liberty  long  after  I  am  gone." 

John  Brown's  Raid.  In  October,  1859,  an  event  known  as 
John  Brown's  Raid  helped  to  widen  the  breach  between  the 
two  sections.  Outlawed  from  Kansas,  John  Brown  next  planned 
to  lead  an  armed  expedition  against  the  South.  This  strange 
man  believed  that  he  had  a  divine  commission  to  destroy  slavery 
by  whatever  means  necessary.  His  friends  tried  to  show  him  the 
folly  of  invading  the  state  of  Virginia  with  a  handful  of  followers  ; 
but  Brown  was  confident  that  the  slaves  would  flock  to  his 
standard  in  a  general  revolt  against  their  masters.  With  a  force 
of  only  eighteen  men,  this  mad  crusader  made  a  sudden  mid- 
night attack  upon  the  Virginia  village  of  Harper's  Ferry.  After 
seizing  the  railroad  bridge,  Brown  took  possession  of  the  United 
States  arsenal,  where  he  held  several  citizens  as  hostages.  No 
slaves  rallied  to  use  the  thousand  pikes  that  Brown  had  brought 
with  him.  A  company  of  soldiers  under  Colonel  Robert  E.  Lee 
surrounded  the  arsenal,  and  after  a  brief,  heroic  resistance, 
Brown  and  his  few  men  were  captured.  Convicted  of  treason  and 


x 


60 


THE   CRISIS   OF   SECESSION  395 


murder  after  a  fair  trial,  the  old  man  went  to  the  gallows  firm  in 
the  belief  that  he  had  obeyed  God's  will. 

The  South  was  alarmed  at  this  attempt  to  excite  a  slave 
insurrection,  and  angered  because  Brown  had  been  aided  with 
arms  and  money  by  a  few  misguided  men  at  the  North.  But  the 
abolitionists  gloried  in  the  challenge  to  slavery  uttered  by  Brown 
as  he  lay  a  captive,  bleeding  and  helpless,  but  unafraid.  "  I 
want  you  to  understand,"  he  said  to  a  newspaper  reporter,  "that 
I  respect  the  rights  of  the  poorest  and  weakest  of  the  colored 
people  oppressed  by  the  slave  system,  just  as  much  as  I  do  those 
of  the  most  wealthy  and  powerful.  ...  I  wish  to  say,  further- 
more, that  you  had  better,  all  you  people  at  the  South,  prepare 
yourselves  for  a  settlement  of  this  question  that  must  come  up 
for  settlement  sooner  than  you  are  prepared  for  it.  The  sooner 
you  are  prepared  the  better.  You  may  dispose  of  me  very  easily. 
I  am  nearly  disposed  of  now ;  but  this  question  is  still  to  be 
settled,  this  negro  question,  I  mean  ;  the  end  of  that  is  not  yet." 

Slavery  Divides  the  Democratic  Party.  Who  should  be 
chosen  as  the  standard  bearer  of  the  Democratic  party  in  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1860?  "Douglas!"  was  the  enthu- 
siastic reply  of  the  northern  delegates  in  the  national  convention 
which  met  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  But  the  radical 
delegates  from  the  South  would  not  accept  Douglas,  even  on  a 
platform  pledging  the  party  to  support  the  Dred  Scott  decision. 
They  demanded  more  —  the  Democratic  party  must  declare  it 
the  duty  of  Congress  to  protect  slavery  in  the  territories.  When 
this  proposal  was  voted  down,  the  delegates  from  six  southern 
states  left  the  convention.  Fifty-seven  ballots  were  taken,  but 
Douglas  could  not  secure  the  two-thirds  vote  necessary  for  the 
nomination.  So  the  convention  adjourned,  to  meet  at  Baltimore 
about  two  months  later.  At  Baltimore,  there  was  a  second 
secession  of  delegates  from  the  slave  states  ;  those  who  remained 
named  Douglas  as  their  candidate.  Ten  days  later,  the  seceding 
delegates  held  a  convention  of  their  own,  and  nominated  John 
C.  Breckinridge  of  Kentucky,  on  a  pro-slavery  platform. 

The  Republicans  Nominate  Lincoln.  The  Republican  con- 
vention met   at   Chicago  in  the   "  Wigwam,"   a  huge  board 


"*  ">£ .  /(See^dr  ??** 

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' 

Abraham  Lincoln 

From  the  statue  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  by  Augustus  St.  Gaudens. 

The  President  has  just  risen  from  his  chair  as  if  to  address  a  multitude. 
Lost  in  thought  at  the  moment  of  speaking,  he  reveals  his  strength  and  sim- 
plicity of  character,  his  tenderness,  goodness,  and  courage ;  his  intellectual 
confidence  and  humility  of  soul,  and  the  serene  dignity  of  the  nation's  Chief 
Executive. 

396 


THE    CRISIS   OP   SECESSION  397 

structure  put  up  for  the  occasion,  with  seats  for  twelve  thousand 
persons.  Chicago  had  never  seen  such  throngs  of  visitors  as 
on  the  day  that  the  convention  met.  Marching  along  behind 
their  band  were  the  Seward  men,  one  thousand  strong,  each 
wearing  a  long  silk  badge  adorned  with  a  portrait  of  the  New 
York  Senator.  They  were  confident  of  victory  and  with  good 
reason ;  for  Seward  was  the  foremost  leader  in  the  Republican 
party,  and  had  the  support  of  more  delegates  than  any  other 
candidate.  Against  Seward's  nomination  was  the  strong  proba- 
bility that  he  could  not  be  elected.  The  delegates  from  In- 
diana, Illinois,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey  said  plainly  that 
Seward  could  not  possibly  carry  those  doubtful  states ;  and 
without  them,  there  could  be  no  Republican  victory.  Seward 
had  been  the  bitter,  outspoken  foe  of  slavery ;  they  pleaded 
for  a  less  radical  candidate,  one  with  fewer  political  enemies. 
The  convention  adopted  a  platform  which  denounced  the 
southern  threats  of  secession,  and  denied  the  power  of  Con- 
gress, or  of  a  territorial  legislature,  to  establish  slavery  in  any 
territory. 

On  the  third  day  of  the  convention  every  seat  in  the  wigwam 
was  filled,  and  eager  thousands  stood  waiting  in  the  streets 
outside  for  the  first  news  of  the  balloting.  A  storm  of  applause 
swept  over  the  hall  when  Seward's  name  was  placed  before  the 
convention,  but  a  greater  demonstration  came  when  Illinois 
presented  her  choice,  Abraham  Lincoln.  Other  states  named 
their  favorite  sons,  but  it  was  evident  that  the  real  contest  lay 
between  Seward  and  Lincoln.  On  the  first  and  second  ballots, 
Seward  had  more  votes  than  any  other  candidate,  but  not  a 
majority  of  the  delegates.  On  the  third  ballot,  Lincoln  led 
Seward  by  fifty  votes ;  one  moment  later,  four  Ohio  delegates 
changed  their  votes  from  Chase  to  Lincoln,  giving  him  a  clear 
majority.  A  tumult  of  huzzas  shook  the  wigwam,  while  a 
cannon  fired  from  the  roof  above  started  the  cheering  of  the 
waiting  thousands  down  the  long  Chicago  streets.  The  Republi- 
can party  had  placed  its  hopes  of  victory  on  the  rail-splitter 
candidate,  the  man  beloved  by  the  common  people,  "  honest 
Abe  Lincoln  "  of  Illinois. 


398  SLAVERY   AND    THE   WEST 

The  Election  of  1860.  A  fourth  set  of  candidates  was  nom- 
inated by  the  Constitutional  Union  party,  a  group  of  conserva- 
tive men  who  feared  the  radical  elements  in  both  North  and 
South.  John  Bell  of  Tennessee  and  Edward  Everett  of  Mas- 
sachusetts were  their  candidates.  Their  platform  was  :  "  No 
political  principles  other  than  the  Constitution  of  the  Country, 
the  Union  of  the  States,  and  the  Enforcement  of  the  Laws." 
The  split  in  the  Charleston  convention  doomed  the  Democratic 
party  to  defeat,  but  Douglas  made  a  splendid  campaign  in  what 
he  knew  was  a  hopeless  contest.  At  the  South  he  pleaded  not 
for  his  own  election,  but  against  the  threatened  secession  if 
Lincoln  should  be  chosen.  When  the  exciting  campaign  closed 
and  the  returns  were  counted,  it  was  found  that  Lincoln  had  won 
the  victory.  Of  the  303  electoral  votes,  he  received  180,  carrying 
every  northern  state  except  New  Jersey.  Douglas  had  only 
twelve  electoral  votes,  three  from  New  Jersey,  and  nine  from 
Missouri.  Bell  carried  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  while 
the  rest  of  the  South  voted  for  Breckinridge.  The  North  had 
elected  its  candidate  on  a  platform  against  slavery.  What  would 
be  the  answer  of  the  South  ? 

Secession  of  South  Carolina  and  the  Cotton  States.  South 
Carolina  quickly  made  reply.  Four  days  after  the  election  of 
Lincoln,  her  legislature  voted  that  a  convention  should  be  elected 
to  decide  the  question  of  secession.  On  December  20,  1860, 
this  convention  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession,  "  dissolving  " 
the  union  between  South  Carolina  and  the  other  states.  The 
reasons  given  for  this  action  were :  the  laws  passed  by  thirteen 
of  the  northern  states,  intended  to  nullify  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Act  of  Congress ;  the  establishment  of  abolition  societies 
throughout  the  North ;  encouraging  the  slaves  to  escape  or 
rebel ;  the  election  by  one  section  of  a  candidate  who  had  said 
that  "this  government  cannot  endure  half  slave  and  half  free"  ; 
and  the  declared  intention  of  the  North  to  exclude  slavery  from 
the  common  territory. 

The  news  of  the  secession  ordinance  was  received  with  wild 
delight  by  the  people  of  South  Carolina.  The  city  of  Charleston 
was  decked  with  palmetto  flags ;  while  parades  and  bonfires, 


* 


THE    CRISIS   OF   SECESSION 


399 


the  booming  of  cannon  and  the  pealing  of  bells,  greeted  the  an- 
nouncement that  South  Carolina  claimed  to  be  an  independent 
commonwealth.  The  other  cotton  states  hastened  to  follow  this 
example.  By  February  1,  1861,  ordinances  of  secession  were 
adopted  by  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas.  In  most  of  these  states,  public  opinion  ran  strongly 
in  favor  of  secession ;  but 
in  all  of  them  there  were 
staunch  friends  of  the  Union. 
In  Georgia,  the  brilliant 
Alexander  H.  Stephens  tried 
in  vain  to  hold  back  his  state 
from  secession.  Stephens 
believed  that  the  South 
could  secure  redress  for  its 
grievances  in  the  Union. 
"  Let  the  fanatics  of  the 
North  break  the  Constitu- 
tion, let  not  the  South  com- 
mit the  aggression." 

The  Confederate  States 
of  America.  Delegates  from 
the  seceding  states  met  at 
Montgomery,  Alabama,  and 
adopted  a  constitution  for 
the  Confederate  States  of  America.  Jefferson  Davis  of  Missis- 
sippi was  elected  President,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of 
Georgia,  Vice  President.  Montgomery  was  chosen  as  the  tem- 
porary capital,  and  Davis  was  duly  inaugurated,  February  18, 
1861.  He  appointed  a  Cabinet,  and  sent  commissioners  to 
Washington  to  negotiate  for  a  peaceful  separation.  Meantime, 
the  Confederate  Congress  voted  that  "  immediate  steps  should 
be  taken  to  obtain  possession  of  Forts  Sumter  and  Pickens, 
either  by  negotiations  or  force." 

Buchanan  the  Irresolute.  In  this  crisis  of  our  national  life, 
well  might  the  friends  of  the  Union  exclaim :  "  O,  for  one  hour 
of  Andrew  Jackson!"    Old    Hickory  would    have   struck  at 


Alexander  H.  Stephens 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Col- 
lection, the  War  Department,  Washington. 


400 


SLAVERY   AND    THE    WEST 


secession  without  a  moment's  delay.  But  President  Buchanan 
was  a  timid,  irresolute  old  man,  under  the  influence  of  the 
southern  members  of  his  Cabinet.  Instead  of  sending  troops 
and  supplies  to  relieve  Fort  Sumter,  the  President  sent  a  long 
message  to  Congress.  No  state,  he  argued,  had  a  right  to  secede 
from  the  Union ;  but  neither  Congress  nor  the  President  had 

power  to  coerce  a  state. 
"  Buchanan's  message,"  re- 
plied Seward,  "  showed  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  Presi- 
dent to  execute  the  laws  — 
unless  somebody  opposes 
him ;  and  that  no  state  has 
a  right  to  secede  —  unless 
it  wants  to." 

The  Crittenden  Compro- 
mise .  While  Buchanan  con- 
tinued  inactive,  several 
plans  for  a  peaceful  compro- 
mise were  brought  forward 
in  Congress.  The  most  im- 
portant was  the  Crittenden 
Compromise,  introduced  by 
Senator  Crittenden  of  Ken- 
tucky. The  chief  features 
of  this  plan  were :  (1)  The  Missouri  Compromise  line  was  to 
be  extended  to  the  Pacific.  Territory  north  of  that  line  was  to 
be  free,  territory  south  of  it  to  be  slave.  (2)  When  any  terri- 
tory, north  or  south,  became  a  state,  it  was  to  have  slavery  or 
not,  as  its  people  wished.  (3)  The  United  States  was  to  pay 
the  owners  the  full  value  of  fugitive  slaves,  in  case  of  inter- 
ference with  their  arrest.  (4)  No  constitutional  amendment 
was  ever  to  be  made  changing  these  provisions,  or  giving  Con- 
gress power  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  state. 

These  proposals  were  referred  to  a  committee  of  thirteen 
Senators,  including  Crittenden,  Douglas,  Davis,  and  Seward. 
The  Republican  members  would  not  agree  to  open  the  ter- 


Jefferson  Davi§ 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Col- 
lection, the  War  Department,  Washington. 


THE    CRISIS   OF   SECESSION  401 

ritories  to  slavery,  and  so  the  Crittenden  Compromise  ended  in 
failure.  Against  the  compromise,  too,  was  the  President-elect, 
Abraham  Lincoln.  He  would  not  abandon  the  principle  of 
freedom  in  the  territories,  the  platform  on  which  his  party  had 
won  in  a  fair  election.  "  Entertain  no  proposition,"  he  wrote, 
"  f or  a  compromise  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  The 
instant  you  do  they  have  us  under  again ;  all  our  labor  is  lost, 
and  sooner  or  later  must  be  done  over  again.  .  .  .  Have  none 
of  it.    The  tug  has  to  come,  and  better  now  than  later." 

Failure  of  the  Peace  Convention.  Union-loving  Virginia  had 
led  the  way  in  forming  the  Constitution,  and  now  Virginia  made 
an  earnest  effort  to  prevent  its  overthrow.  Her  legislature 
invited  the  other  states  to  send  delegates  to  a  convention  at 
Washington.  Fourteen  free  and  seven  slave  states  were  repre- 
sented, and  the  members  did  all  that  earnest,  patriotic  men  could 
do  to  save  the  country  from  Civil  War.  The  proposals  of  the 
peace  convention  were  similar  to  the  Crittenden  Compromise, 
although  not  quite  so  favorable  to  the  South.  But  the  work  of 
the  convention  was  in  vain,  for  Congress  rejected  its  plan  of 
compromise.  Every  effort  for  peace  and  conciliation  had  ended 
in  failure ;  there  remained  only  the  appeal  to  arms. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  497-504. 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Expansion  and  Conflict,  chs.  XII- XIII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  III,  chs.  VIII-  X. 

Landon,  J.  S.,  Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the  United 
States,  ch.  XI. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  III,  chs. 
XCII-XCVI. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Dred  Scott  Decision,  pp.  405-420  ;  South  Carolina  Ordinance 
of  Secession,  pp.  423-424  ;  Constitution  of  the  Confederate  States, 
pp.  424-433. 

Morse,  E.  W.,  Causes  and  Effects  in  American  History,  ch.  XV. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  pp.  251-271  ;  III, 
ch.  XIII. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  XIII. 


402  SLAVERY   AND    THE   WEST 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS* 

1.  The  Dred  Scott  Decision.  Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History 
Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  ch.  VII. 

2.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  Harding,  S.  B.,  Select  Orations 
Illustrating  American  History,  pp.  309-341. 

3.  Abraham  Lincoln.     Nicolay,  J.  G.,  Abraham  Lincoln,  ch.  IX. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  A  New 
Nation,  pp.  186-202  ;  Brown,  W.  G.,  Stephen  A.  Douglas  (River- 
side Biographical  Series)  ;  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F.,  Story 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  ch.  XXIII. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
SOCIAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL    GROWTH 

Growth  in  Area  and  Population.  During  the  period  from 
1789  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  our  country  had  a 
wonderful  growth.  When  Washington  became  President,  about 
four  million  people  were  living  in  the  thirteen  states.  During  the 
next  seventy  years,  the  United  States  annexed  two  million 
square  miles  of  territory,  stretching  from  the  Mississippi  River 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  In  1860,  our  area  was  three  times  as  large 
as  in  1790,  our  population  eight  times  as  great.  The  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  found  32,000,000  people  in  the  thirty-three 
states  of  the  Union. 

The  Westward  Movement.  Meantime,  the  center  of  popula- 
tion had  moved  steadily  westward  from  a  point  near  Baltimore 
in  1790,  to  a  point  south  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  in  1860.  This 
westward  movement  began  before  the  Revolution  was  over. 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  the  first  fruits  of  its  progress,  became 
states  during  Washington's  presidency.  Soon  the  Northwest 
Territory  was  peopled  with  sturdy  pioneers,  and  carved  into 
five  new  states ;  next  the  Mississippi  Valley  became  the  home 
of  millions  of  settlers ;  while  later  years  saw  the  hardy  "  Forty- 
Niners  "  pushing  westward  across  the  Rockies  to  found  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon,  our  first  states  on  the  Pacific  slope.  This  west- 
ward movement,  the  march  of  a  people  across  the  continent,  is 
the  greatest  single  fact  in  our  history  from  the  Revolution  to 
the  Civil  War. 

To  encourage  the  rapid  development  of  the  West,  public 
lands  were  sold  to  settlers  at  a  nominal  price,  while  immense 
tracts  were  given  away  in  aid  of  education,  railroads,  and  other 
internal  improvements.  Finally,  in  1862  Congress  passed  an  act 
granting  a  free  homestead  to  any  settler  who  would  reside  on  his 

403 


7 


McCormicks  First  Successful  Reaper  — 1831 


is  .  •- 

A  Modern  Harvester-Thresher  with  Oil  Tractor 
The  Evolution  of  the  Harvester 

Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Company  of  America. 
404 


SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   GROWTH  405 

"  claim  "  and  cultivate  it  for  a  period  of  five  years.  This 
abundance  of  cheap,  fertile  land  attracted  thousands  of  settlers 
from  the  East,  and  drew  thousands  more  from  the  crowded 
countries  of  Europe.  It  was  the  chief  reason  for  an  agricultural 
development  which  became  the  marvel  of  the  world. 

New  Agricultural  Machines.  Besides  cheap  land,  the  west- 
ern pioneer  was  aided  by  new  agricultural  machines.  By  1825, 
the  farmer  had  cast  aside  the  clumsy  plow  of  colonial  days, 
and  was  using  the  cast-iron  plow.  Until  the  invention  of  the 
McCormick  reaper  in  1831,  hay  and  grain  were  cut  with  a 
scythe  or  sickle,  and  raked  with  a  hand  rake.  By  working  hard 
with  these  tools,  the  farmer  could  cut  and  rake  one  acre  of  oats 
in  a  day.  The  new  reaper  did  the  same  work  in  twenty  minutes. 
About  this  time,  too,  the  threshing  machine  was  invented, 
which  could  thresh  out  more  grain  in  half  an  hour  than  a  man 
with  a  flail  could  beat  out  in  a  week.  There  were  also  new  ma- 
chines for  cultivating  and  tilling  the  soil,  cultivators,  horse 
hoers,  and  seed  drills,  which  made  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to 
substitute  animal  power  for  hand  labor. 

With  these  labor-saving  machines,  and  with  a  boundless 
supply  of  fertile  soil,  agriculture  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
In  1840,  the  value  of  our  agricultural  products  was  one  billion 
dollars ;  while  twenty  years  later,  they  were  worth  nearly  two 
billions.  Cotton  was  by  far  the  most  valuable  crop.  The  South 
raised  seven  eighths  of  the  world's  supply  of  cotton  in  1860,  and 
also  led  the  world  in  the  production  of  tobacco.  In  the  West, 
wheat,  corn,  and  live  stock  were  the  chief  products.  These  were 
shipped  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  southern  plantations  which 
raised  only  staple  crops,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar.  So 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  the  West  was  rapidly  becoming 
the  granary  of  the  world,  the  South  was  raising  cotton  and 
tobacco,  while  only  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  had 
manufacturing  developed  to  any  extent. 

King  Cotton  and  Slavery.  In  the  South,  the  cotton  belt 
shifted  during  the  first  half  of  the  century.  Three  fourths  of 
our  cotton  was  raised  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  in  1800 ; 
while  in  1860,  two  thirds  of  the  crop  came  from  Georgia,  Ala- 


406  SLAVERY  AND   THE   WEST 

bama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana.  Nine  tenths  of  the  cotton  of 
the  South  was  raised  by  slaves  working  on  large  plantations. 
Slave  labor  seemed  well  suited  to  cotton  raising,  for  this  crop  re- 
quired few  tools  and  only  routine  work.  So  the  value  of  slaves 
rose  with  the  increased  demand  for  cotton.  In  1860  nearly  three 
times  as  much  cotton  was  produced  as  in  1840,  while  the  price 
of  a  good  field  hand  rose  from  $500  to  $1500. 

As  a  rule,  slave  labor  was  ignorant,  clumsy,  and  wasteful. 
Since  fear  was  the  only  motive  for  labor,  the  slave  usually 
put  forth  only  as  much  effort  as  was  necessary  to  avoid  a  flog- 
ging. The  slaves  were  probably  not  one  half  as  efficient  as  the 
free  laborers  of  the  North.  Then,  too,  their  ignorance  prevented 
the  introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery.  Throughout  the 
South,  wasteful  methods  of  farming  were  the  rule.  The  planters 
would  raise  crop  after  crop  of  cotton,  and  when  one  piece  of  land 
was  exhausted,  a  new  piece  would  be  taken  up.  Such  a  system 
required  an  unlimited  upply  of  new  and  fertile  land,  a  fact  which 
explains  the  constant  demand  of  the  South  for  more  slave  ter- 
ritory. This  method  of  cropping  the  land  resulted  in  a  rapid 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  and  every  southern  state  had  enormous 
tracts  of  worn-out  and  abandoned  cotton  lands. 

Thus  while  the  northern  farmer  was  using  new  machinery 
and  new  methods,  slave  labor  prevented  anything  like  scientific 
farming  at  the  South.  There  was  no  rotation  of  crops,  little  use 
of  fertilizers  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  an  absence  of 
improved  live  stock,  machinery,  fences,  and  silos.  Large 
plantations  were  the  rule,  managed  by  hired  overseers  who  tried 
to  grow  as  much  cotton  as  possible,  without  reference  to  the 
future.  The  planter  lived  the  life  of  an  aristocratic  gentleman ; 
and  the  profits  from  his  cotton  crop,  instead  of  going  to  improve 
the  soil,  went  into  the  purchase  of  more  lands  and  more  slaves. 

The  Poor  Whites  of  the  South.  Not  the  least  of  the  evils  of 
slavery  was  its  effect  upon  the  white  population  of  the  South. 
Until  the  invention  of  the  gin,  white  farmers  raised  most  of  the 
cotton  crop.  After  that  invention,  cotton  culture  spread  to  the 
more  fertile  lands  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  The  large  planta- 
tion with  its  slave  labor  competed  successfully  with  the  small 


SOCIAL  AND    INDUSTRIAL   GROWTH  407 

farm  and  finally  supplanted  it,  just  as  factory  production  drove 
out  domestic  production  at  the  North.  The  small  farmer  then 
retreated  to  the  poorer  lands,  where  he  grew  a  few  acres  of 
cotton,  raised  some  live  stock,  or  engaged  in  mixed  farming. 
Slavery  degraded  free  labor,  so  that  the  poor  whites  of  the 
South  were  despised  alike  by  slave  owners  and  by  negroes. 
"  Crackers  "  and  "  Clay-eaters  "  were  terms  of  contempt 
applied  by  the  aristocratic  slave  owner ;  "  poor  white  trash,"  the 
negroes  called  them. 

These  poor  whites  of  the  South  were  as  ignorant  as  the  slaves 
themselves.  They  farmed  the  worn-out  lands,  and  eked  out  a 
miserable  existence.  They  looked  upon  the  large  slave  owners 
with  feelings  of  sullen  envy ;  yet  when  election  day  came,  the 
whites  who  were  without  money  and  without  slaves  did  the 
bidding  of  the  lord  of  the  plantation.  The  slaveholders  took  the 
political  offices ;  the  man  who  worked  with  his  hands  was 
seldom  chosen  to  represent  the  South  in  the  halls  of  Congress. 
The  southern  political  system  was  really  a  government  of  the 
few,  maintained  by  and  for  the  slaveholders.  The  poor  whites 
who  fought  so  bravely  in  the  Confederate  armies  were  fighting 
to  preserve  an  institution  in  whose  benefits  they  could  not 
possibly  share,  and  which  doomed  them  to  ignorance  and 
poverty. 

How  Slavery  Hurt  the  South.  In  many  other  ways,  slavery 
was  working  harm  to  the  South.  It  prevented  the  growth  of  its 
population.  The  population  of  the  North  and  the  South  was 
almost  equal  in  1800 ;  but  in  1860,  the  North  had  19,000,000 
people,  the  South  about  12,000,000.  Political  troubles  in 
Europe  and  he  discovery  of  gold  in  California  brought  large 
numbers  of  Englishmen,  Irishmen,  and  Germans  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  decade  from  1850  to  1860,  nearly  three  million 
of  these  immigrants  entered  our  country.  The  newcomers 
avoided  the  South,  for  they  would  not  compete  with  slave 
labor.  They  peopled  the  great  industrial  cities  of  the  North, 
they  took  up  farms  in  the  Middle  West,  they  mined  its  coal, 
built  its  railroads,  and  developed  the  resources  of  that  section. 
The  South  was  rich  in  natural  resources,  in  deposits  of  iron  and 


408  SLAVERY   AND    THE    WEST 

coal,  in  timber  and  water  supply,  but  these  resources  were  unde- 
veloped before  the  Civil  War.  Slave  labor  could  not  develop 
them,  and  free  labor  would  not,  while  slavery  existed.  Thus 
slavery  confined  the  industry  of  the  South  to  agriculture,  and 
prevented  the  development  of  its  natural  resources,  at  the  very 
time  when  free  labor  was  making  he  North  a  great  industrial 
region. 

Improved  Means  of  Communication.  The  rapid  settlement 
of  the  West  was  made  possible  only  by  improving  our  early 
means  of  transportation.  The  turnpike,  the  canal,  and  the  rail- 
road each  mark  a  stage  in  the  history  of  transportation.  The 
turnpike  belongs  to  the  period  between  the  Revolution  and  the 
War  of  1812.  Next  came  the  era  of  the  canals,  from  1816  to  1850. 
Then  came  the  age  of  railroad  building ;  the  9000  miles  of  track 
in  1850  were  increased  to  30,000  in  1860.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out,  the  railroads  were  carrying  two  thirds  of  our  total 
inland  trade,  with  an  immense  saving  in  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion. The  new  railway  lines  made  it  possible  for  western  farms 
to  feed  the  city  dwellers  of  the  East.  New  York  City  grew  from 
30,000  people  in  1840  to  800,000  in  1860.  Philadelphia  came 
second  with  a  population  of  over  half  a  million.  Then  followed, 
in  order,  Baltimore,  St.  Louis,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  and  Cin- 
cinnati. The  number  of  city  dwellers  doubled  between  1840  and 
1860,  while  the  number  of  cities  increased  from  forty-four  to  one 
hundred  and  forty-one. 

The  railroad  was  not  the  only  improved  means  of  communica- 
tion. The  telegraph  line  first  operated  by  Morse  in  1844  had 
grown  by  1860  into  a  network  of  50,000  miles  of  wire,  connecting 
all  the  cities  of  the  country.  Our  postal  system  was  improved 
and  extended,  the  rate  on  letters  being  reduced  in  1850  to  three 
cents.  A  new  process  of  manufacturing  paper  from  wood  pulp, 
together  with  the  invention  of  the  cylinder  press,  made  possible 
the  cheap  newspaper  of  the  present  day. 

Spread  of  the  Factory  System.  After  the  War  of  1812, 
American  manufactures  grew  steadily.  The  household  method 
of  production  with  its  spinning  wheel,  its  hand  loom,  and  its 
household  forge,  became  a  thing  of  the  past.     Factory  pro- 


SOCIAL  AND    INDUSTRIAL   GROWTH  409 

duction,  which  began  with  Slater's  first  mill  and  Lowell's  factory 
at  Waltham,  made  rapid  headway.  First  developed  in  the  cot- 
ton and  woolen  industries,  the  factory  system  spread  rapidly 
to  other  employments.  Leather  tanneries,  silk  and  paper  mills, 
flour,  grist,  and  sawmills,  iron  factories,  sugar  refineries,  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  of  clothing, 
hardware,  and  agricultural  implements,  —  all  were  operated 
under  the  new  plan.  The  factory  system  became  the  most 
important  industrial  event  of  the  century.  Its  chief  results  were  : 
(1)  An  immense  increase  in  production,  at  a  greatly  reduced 
cost.  (2)  The  employment  of  women  and  children  whose  labor 
had  been  almost  entirely  in  the  home,  but  who  now  abandoned 
the  household  crafts,  and  followed  the  industries  into  the 
factories.  (3)  The  creation  of  a  laboring  class,  as  distinct  from 
the  class  of  employers.  (4)  The  growth  of  factory  towns  and 
industrial  cities. 

Growth  of  American  Manufactures.  Our  first  iron  factories 
used  charcoal  for  smelting.  As  the  forests  were  cut  down  and 
wood  became  less  plentiful,  the  cost  of  production  kept  increas- 
ing. About  1840,  a  new  invention  made  possible  the  substitution 
of  anthracite  coal  for  charcoal.  This  change  revolutionized  the 
iron  industry.  Rolled  iron,  and  iron  rails  for  our  railroads,  were 
made  in  this  country  for  the  first  time.  By  1860,  our  iron  fac- 
tories were  turning  out  each  year  products  worth  $90,000,000. 
Equally  important  was  the  progress  made  in  the  manufacture 
of  machinery,  agricultural  implements,  and  hardware,  indus- 
tries which  depend  upon  iron  production. 

Thus  while  agriculture  was  our  chief  industry  in  1860,  manu- 
facturing was  a  close  rival.  In  that  year,  the  total  value  of 
the  farm  products  of  the  United  States  was  $1,910,000,000, 
while  manufactured  products  were  worth  $1,885,000,000. 
Manufacturing  was  largely  centered  in  three  states,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Massachusetts,  which  together  produced 
over  one  half  of  all  our  manufactures. 

The  Mining  Industry.  This  development  of  manufactures 
was  aided  by  the  discovery  of  immense  mines  of  coal,  gas,  oil, 
copper,  and  the  precious  metals.    The  wealth  of  our  gold  and 


410 


SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 


silver  deposits  surpassed  even  the  dreams  of  the  early  Spanish 
explorers.  During  the  years  from  1850  to  1865,  California  mines 
yielded  $761,000,000  worth  of  gold.  Rich  copper  mines  were 
discovered  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  by  1860  the 
United  States  had  become  the  largest  producer  of  copper  in  the 
world.     Petroleum  or  crude  oil  was  discovered  at  Titusville, 

Pennsylvania,  in  1859 ; 
soon  fifty  million  gallons 
of  oil  were  being  produced 
annually  from  wells  in 
different  parts  of  the 
country,  beginning  an- 
other of  our  great  indus- 
tries. 

Inventions  and  Indus- 
trial Progress.  Our  great 
industrial  progress  was 
due  largely  to  the  Ameri- 
can genius  for  invention. 
Congress  provided  in  1790 
for  patents  giving  to  in- 
ventors the  exclusive  right 
to  make,  use,  and  sell  their 
inventions  for  fourteen 
(now  seventeen)  years. 
During  the  half  century 
before  1860,  nearly  40,000 
patents  were  granted.  We  have  seen  how  invention  aided  agri- 
culture, and  how  the  power  loom  built  up  the  textile  industries. 
Another  invention  with  far-reaching  results  was  the  sewing 
machine,  the  product  of  the  genius  of  Elias  Howe  (1846).  The 
sewing  machine  was  directly  responsible  for  the  growth  of  two  of 
our  chief  industries,  ready-made  clothing,  and  the  boot  and 
shoe  industry. 

The  quarter  century  from  1815  to  1840  was  the  golden  age  of 
American  invention  and  mechanical  progress.  "  It  was  during 
this  period  that  fire  bricks,  paper  made  from  hay  and  straw,  pen- 


Elias  Howe's  Sewing  Machine,  1846 

From  the  inventor's  model  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  Washington,  This  was  the 
first  machine  having  an  eye-pointed  needle 
and  shuttle,  making  a  lock  stitch. 


SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   GROWTH  411 

knives,  axles,  chisels,  and  edged  tools  were  first  manufactured 
in  our  country ;  that  boards  were  first  planed  by  machine ;  that 
Fairbanks  invented  the  platform  scales ;  that  ether  was  dis- 
covered;  that  Howe  made  and  sold  the  firvt  lock  stitch  sewing 
machine ;  that  Morse  invented  the  recording  telegraph ;  that 
steel  pens  and  friction  matches  came  into  use  ;  that  Colt  invented 
the  revolver ;  that  the  reaper  was  given  its  first  public  trial ; 
that  the  art  of  burning  anthracite  coal  was  discovered ;  that 
the  railroad  was  introduced  and  the  steamboat  greatly  de- 
veloped ;  that  omnibuses  appeared  in  the  large  cities ;  that 
steam  navigation  of  the  Atlantic  began ;  that  schemes  of  all 
sorts  were  considered,  and  attempts  made  to  build  a  canal  across 
Panama." 

Commerce  and  Shipping.  During  the  early  years  of  the 
Republic,  our  foreign  trade  was  in  a  flourishing  condition.  For 
twenty  years  following  1793,  the  Napoleonic  wars  occupied 
the  energies  of  Europe.  Meantime  the  United  States,  as  a 
neutral  country,  secured  a  large  part  of  the  world's  carrying 
trade.  But  in  1807,  the  British  and  French  decrees,  followed 
by  our  own  Embargo  Act,  destroyed  this  profitable  trade.  The 
War  of  1812,  while  an  aid  to  our  manufactures,  was  almost  as 
disastrous  to  our  commerce  as  the  Embargo  Act.  Not  until 
1830  did  our  foreign  trade  begin  to  recover.  About  this  time, 
American  shipbuilders  developed  a  new  type  of  sailing  vessel, 
superior  to  all  competitors.  This  was  the  clipper  ship,  which 
soon  gave  the  United  States  first  place  in  the  ocean-carrying 
trade.  So  superior  in  construction  and  speed  were  these  ships 
that  they  could  make  three  trips  to  England  in  the  time  that  a 
British  vessel  was  making  two.  Our  total  tonnage  engaged  in 
foreign  trade  grew  from  760,000  tons  in  1840  to  2,500,000  in  1861. 
In  1840  our  total  foreign  trade  was  $220,000,000  a  year ;  twenty 
years  later,  it  had  expanded  to  nearly  $700,000,000.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  our  imports  far  exceeded  the 
value  of  our  exports  ;  by  1860  we  were  selling  to  other  countries 
almost  as  much  as  we  bought  from  them. 

The  supremacy  of  the  American  sailing  vessel  came  to  an 
end  with  a  new  development  in  the  shipbuilding  industry.  This 


412  SLAVERY   AND   THE   WEST 

was  the  change  from  wooden  sailing  vessels  to  iron  ships  pro- 
pelled by  steam.  British  shipyards  at  once  took  the  lead  in 
constructing  iron  steamships,  while  our  shipbuilders  clung  to 
the  older  type  of  vessel.  So  Great  Britain  won  back  her  suprem- 
acy as  the  ocean  carrier  of  the  world,  while  our  shipping  began  to 
decline.  Only  sixty-five  per  cent  of  our  foreign  trade  was  carried 
in  American  ships  in  1861,  as  compared  with  ninety-two  per 
cent  in  the  early  years  of  the  century. 

"  The  Impending  Crisis  in  the  South."  In  all  this  industrial 
and  commercial  prosperity,  the  South,  as  her  secession  leaders 
said,  had  but  small  share.  They  found  the  reason  in  the  fact 
that  the  North  would  not  permit  the  extension  of  slavery;  in 
fact,  it  was  slavery  itself  that  was  preventing  the  growth  of  the 
South.  Just  before  the  Civil  War,  Hint  on  Helper,  a  poor  white 
of  South  Carolina,  wrote  a  book  which  stirred  the  whole  country. 
The  Impending  Crisis  in  the  South,  How  to  Meet  It,  contrasted 
the  economic  results  of  slavery  and  freedom.  Helper  pointed 
out  that  when  the  Constitution  was  adopted,  the  population  of 
New  York  was  340,000,  that  of  Virginia  740,000 ;  while  sixty 
years  later,  New  York  had  3,000,000  people,  Virginia  only 
1,400,000.  In  1791  the  exports  of  New  York  were  $2,500,000, 
those  of  Virginia  $3,100,000;  in  1852,  New  York's  exports 
totaled  $87,000,000,  while  those  of  Virginia  were  only 
$2,700,000. 

Helper  urged  the  whites  of  the  South  who  did  not  own  slaves 
to  form  a  political  party  of  their  own  and  work  for  the  abolition 
of  the  institution  which  was  throttling  the  growth  of  their 
section.  "  And  now,  sirs,  we  have  thus  laid  down  our  ultimatum. 
What  are  you  going  to  do  about  it?  Something  dreadful,  of 
course.  Perhaps  you  will  dissolve  the  Union  again.  Do  it, 
if  you  dare !  Our  motto,  and  we  would  have  you  to  understand 
it,  is  '  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  perpetuation  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union.'  If  by  any  means  you  do  succeed  in  your  treasonable 
attempts  to  take  the  South  out  of  the  Union  to-day,  we  will  bring 
her  back  to-morrow." 


SOCIAL  AND    INDUSTRIAL   GROWTH  413 


REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  History  of  the  People  of  the    United  States,  VIII, 

ch.  LXXXVII. 
Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  chs.  XI- XII. 
Smith,  T.  C,  Parties  and  Slavery,  ch.  V. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  I. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  Cotton  and  Slavery.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  X  ;  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  XV. 

2.  Population  and  Labor.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States,  ch.  XVIII. 

3.  Growth  of  American  Industry.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXVI  ;  Morse,  C.  W.,  Causes  and  Ef- 
fects in  American  History,  ch.  XII. 

4.  The  Public  Lands.  Callender,  G.  S.,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States,  chs.  XII- XIII. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Factory  System.  Wright,  C.  D.,  Industrial  Evolution  of 
the  United  States,  chs.  X-XI. 

2.  The  Telegraph.     Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History, 
ch.    XLII  ;    Great   Epochs    in  American    History,  VII,   pp.   36^7 
Mowry,  W.  A.,   American  Inventions  and  Inventors,    pp.  270-277 
Sparks,    E.    E.,    Expansion  of    the   American    People,   ch.  XXIV 
Wright,  H.  C,  American  Progress,  ch.  XII. 

3.  Howe  and  the  Sewing  Machine.  Great  Epochs  in  American 
History,  VII,  pp.  48-52. 

4.  The  Telephone.  Faris,  J.  T.,  Real  Stories  from  Our  History. 
ch.  XLIII  ;  Mowry,  W.  A.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp. 
286-291. 


414 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE   APPEAL   TO    ARMS 

The  Union  or  State  Rights.  Could  a  state  at  its  own  pleasure 
withdraw  from  the  Union?  This  was  the  fateful  issue  raised  by 
the  secession  ordinances  of  the  seven  Gulf  states  which  in 
February,  1861,  invited  the  other  slave  states  to  join  their  new 
government.  The  threat  of  secession  had  been  heard  on  more 
than  one  occasion  in  our  history  ;  and  the  South  in  1861  only  did 
what  the  New  England  secessionists  had  threatened  during  the 
War  of  1812. 

On  account  of  its  institution  of  slavery,  the  South  still  clung 
to  the  early  view  of  the  Constitution  as  a  compact  from  which 
any  state  might  withdraw  if  it  chose.  This  was  the  doctrine 
of  Calhoun,  and  it  was  accepted  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
southern  people.  Historically,  there  was  much  to  justify  this 
view  of  the  Constitution ;  but  with  the  lapse  of  years,  a  strong 
Union  sentiment  had  sprung  up  at  the  North.  President  Jack- 
son's bold  stand  against  nullification  in  1832  had  given  the 
North  its  watchword:  "The  federal  Union,  it  must  be  pre- 
served." Webster's  eloquent  appeal  in  his  debate  with  Hayne 
crystallized  northern  sentiment  in  favor  of  "  Liberty  and  Union, 
one  and  inseparable."  Now,  as  the  southern  states  were  seizing 
the  Union  customhouses  and  other  national  property,  General 
John  A.  Dix  contributed  a  third  burning  phrase,-  worthy  of  a 
place  beside  those  of  Jackson  and  Webster  :  "If  any  one  attempts 
to  haul  down  the  American  flag,  shoot  him  on  the  spot !  "  By 
1861  most  northern  men  believed  with  Webster  that  the  Union 
was  permanent  and  enduring ;  and  the  great  majority  of  them 
were  ready  to  fight  for  their  belief.  Equally  sincere  were  the 
Southerners,  who  tried  to  establish  their  view  of  the  Constitu- 

415 


416  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

tion  as  a  compact  between  equal  partners,  from  which  any- 
dissatisfied  member  might  withdraw. 

Lincoln  and  the  Compromise  Proposals.  With  the  failure  of 
the  Crittenden  Compromise  and  the  Peace  Convention,  the  whole 
country,  North  and  South,  looked  toward  Lincoln.  That  firm 
and  tactful  leader  refused  to  make  any  statement  which  might 
embarrass  Buchanan  in  the  last  months  of  his  presidential  term. 
To  the  questions  asked  him,  Lincoln  would  only  reply  that  his 
position  would  be  found  in  his  former  speeches.  But  in  a  letter 
to  Senator  Seward,  the  President-elect  made  it  plain  that  he 
would  support  no  compromise  based  on  additional  slave  ter- 
ritory. "  On  that  question/'  said  he,  "  I  am  inflexible.  I  am 
for  no  compromise  which  assists  or  permits  the  extension  of  the 
institution  on  soil  owned  by  the  nation."  However,  Lincoln 
was  ready  to  approve  a  constitutional  amendment  guaranteeing 
that  there  should  be  no  interference  with  slavery  in  the  states 
where  it  was  already  established. 

Lincoln  Prepares  to  Take  Office.  Locking  himself  in  an  up- 
stairs room  over  a  store  opposite  the  statehouse  at  Springfield, 
Lincoln  began  to  write  his  inaugural  address.  He  had  before  him 
as  his  authorities  a  copy  of  the  federal  Constitution,  Henry 
Clay's  speech  of  1850,  Jackson's  proclamation  against  nullifica- 
tion, and  Webster's  reply  to  Hayne.  As  the  time  for  the 
inauguration  drew  near,  Lincoln  bade  a  last  farewell  to  his  old 
friends  and  neighbors,  and  started  on  his  journey  to  the  national 
capital.  He  believed  that  the  task  before  him  "  was  greater  than 
that  which  rested  upon  Washington  "  ;  but  this  untried  man 
from  Illinois  was  destined  to  prove  himself  equal  to  the  gravest 
crisis  in  our  history.  When  he  reached  Philadelphia,  Lincoln 
told  the  country  in  his  speech  at  Independence  Hall :  "  There 
will  be  no  bloodshed  unless  it  is  forced  upon  the  government. 
The  government  will  not  use  force  unless  force  is  used 
against  it." 

The  Inaugural  Address.  In  spite  of  threats  and  predictions 
to  the  contrary,  nothing  occurred  to  interrupt  the  inauguration 
at  Washington.  Lincoln's  voice  rang  out  clear  as  he  delivered  his 
address  to  the  anxious  and  attentive  crowd  before  the  east  front 


THE   APPEAL   TO   ARMS  417 


of  the  Capitol.  Close  at  his  side  was  a  man  whom  he  had  often 
met  on  the  platform  in  fierce  debate,  but  who  now  sat  attentive 
and  friendly,  holding  Lincoln's  hat.  It  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
his  defeated  rival,  giving  notice  to  every  one  that  he  proposed  to 
stand  by  the  President.  This  was  the  last  and  best  public  service 
of  the  "  Little  Giant  "  who,  whatever  his  mistakes,  never 
faltered  in  his  loyalty  to  the  Union. 

On  the  two  great  issues  of  slavery  and  secession,  Lincoln  stated 
his  position  clearly  and  firmly.  "I  have  no  purpose,"  said 
he,  "  directly  or  indirectly  to  interfere  with  the  institution  of 
slavery  in  the  states  where  it  exists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful 
right  to  do  so,  and  I  have  no  inclination  to  do  so."  On  the 
question  of  secession  it  was  no  longer  the  irresolute  Buchanan 
who  spoke.  "  No  state,"  said  Lincoln,  "  can  lawfully  get  out  of 
the  Union ;  resolves  and  ordinances  to  that  effect  are  legally 
void.  To  the  extent  of  my  ability,  I  shall  take  care,  as  the 
Constitution  itself  expressly  enjoins  upon  me,  that  the  laws  of 
the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  states."  The  President 
closed  with  a  touching  appeal  which  awakened  no  response  at 
the  South.  "  Physically  speaking,  we  cannot  separate.  In  your 
hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow  countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is 
the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war.  The  government  will  not  as- 
sail you.  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves  the 
aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  Heaven  to  destroy 
the  government ;  while  I  shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  to 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  it." 

Lincoln's  War  Cabinet.  President  Lincoln  chose  William 
H.  Seward  of  New  York  as  his  Secretary  of  State.  Senator 
Seward  was  regarded  by  many  people,  including  himself,  as  the 
real  head  of  the  Republican  party ;  and  he  confidently  expected 
to  be  the  power  behind  the  throne  in  the  new  administration. 
The  position  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  went  to  Salmon  P. 
Chase  of  Ohio,  who  represented  the  radical  Republicans  of  the 
Middle  West.  Simon  Cameron  of  Pennsylvania  was  made 
Secretary  of  War,  but  within  a  year  was  replaced  by  Edwin  M. 
Stanton,  a  Union  Democrat  who  had  been  a  bitter  personal 
enemy  of  Lincoln.     New  England  was  recognized  by  the  ap- 


418 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


pointment  of  Gideon  Welles  of  Connecticut  as  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  The  Postmaster-General,  Montgomery  Blair  of  Mary- 
land, and  the  Attorney-General,  Edward  Bates  of  Missouri, 
voiced  the  loyal  sentiment  of  the  border  states.  Lincoln  aimed 
to  have  his  Cabinet  represent  all  the  different  elements  of  public 
opinion  that  wished  to  preserve  the  Union.  So  he  included 
moderate  and  radical  Republicans,  War  Democrats,  and  loyal 


«feO 


Lincoln's  War  Cabinet 

From  left  to  right:  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Salmon  P.  Chase,  President  Lincoln, 
Gideon  Welles,  William  H.  Seward  (seated),  Caleb  Smith,  Montgomery  Blair, 
and  Edward  Bates. 

border  state  men.     No  Southerners  were  appointed,  although 
the  President  was  urged  to  name  at  least  one. 

It  was  a  strong,  though  unruly  cabinet ;  but  it  was  domi- 
nated by  a  still  stronger  personality.  When  Secretary  Seward 
urged  upon  Lincoln  his  absurd  scheme  of  foreign  war  as  a  means 
of  saving  the  country  from  disunion,  the  President  quietly 
overruled  him.  More  remarkable  still  was  his  taming  of  Stanton, 
that  human  dynamo  who  terrorized  every  one  except  his  chief. 
"  Mister  President,  I  refuse  to  execute  this  order."  "  Well, 
Mister  Secretary,  I  reckon  it  will  have  to  be  done."  And  done  it 
always  was. 


THE   APPEAL  TO  ARMS 


419 


The  Attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  April  12,  1861.  The  first  test  as 
to  whether  the  government  was  to  keep  possession  of  the  national 
property  located  in  the  South  was  not  long  delayed.  By  the  first 
of  April,  1861,  nearly  all  of  the  forts,  arsenals,  customhouses,  and 
post  offices  in  the  seceding  states  had  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Confederates.  Only  Fort  Sumter,  guarding  the  mouth  of 
the  harbor  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  Fort  Pickens  at 
Pensacola,  Florida,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Union. 

When  Lincoln  was  inaugurated,  Major  Robert  Anderson  with 
eighty  men  was  still  holding  Fort  Sumter,  although  in  desperate 


Fort  Sumter  after  the  Bombardment 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collection,  the  War  Department,  Washington. 

need  of  reinforcements  and  food.  "  What  shall  be  done  about 
Sumter?"  became  the  question  of  the  hour  at  Washington. 
Should  the  federal  troops  be  withdrawn  as  demanded  by  the 
Confederate  authorities,  or  should  the  garrison  be  reinforced? 
President  Lincoln  decided  to  send  food  and  supplies  to  Sumter ; 
but  before  the  relief  ships  could  reach  Charleston,  Jefferson 
Davis,  President  of  the  Confederate  government,  gave  the  order 
to  capture  the  fort.  On  the  morning  of  April  12,  the  Charleston 
batteries  opened  fire.  Major  Anderson  and  his  little  band  of  men 
were  able  to  hold  out  about  thirty-six  hours,  when  fire  broke 
out  within  the  fort  and  he  was  obliged  to  surrender.  After 
saluting  his  flag  with  fifty  guns,  Anderson  embarked  his  men 
on  the  relief  ships  which  had  arrived  during  the  bombardment, 
but  which  could  not  reach  the  fort.  The  South  had  made  the 
first  attack  ;  what  would  be  the  answer  of  the  North  ? 


420  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

The  Call  to  Arms.  Bewildered  at  the  action  of  the  seceding 
states,  the  North  at  first  refused  to  believe  that  they  would 
really  carry  out  their  program.  A  few  "  peace  at  any  price  "  men 
urged  that  if  the  southern  states  were  in  earnest,  the  Union  was 
not  worth  a  war.  "  Let  the  erring  sisters  go  in  peace,"  was  for  a 
time  the  advice  of  Horace  Greeley  in  the  influential  New  York 
Tribune.  Garrison  and  other  abolitionists  at  first  expressed  joy 
at  the  prospect  of  the  destruction  of  a  Union  which  permitted 
slavery.  But  the  attack  upon  Fort  Sumter  united  the  North 
as  nothing  else  could  have  done  in  defense  of  the  Union.  When 
President  Lincoln  called  for  75,000  volunteers  for  three  months, 
the  drums  beat  in  every  town,  and  the  rush  to  arms  was  uni- 
versal. Within  a  day  after  Lincoln's  call,  the  Sixth  Regiment 
of  Massachusetts  mustered  on  Boston  Common  and  started 
for  Washington.  On  April  19,  the  Massachusetts  regiment 
reached  Baltimore,  where  it  was  fired  upon  by  a  mob  of  southern 
sympathizers ;  and  here,  on  the  anniversary  of  Lexington,  the 
first  blood  was  shed  in  the  Civil  War.  But  the  Sixth  Massa- 
chusetts pushed  on  to  Washington,  and  prepared  to  defend  the 
capital  against  sudden  attack. 

No  less  loyal  were  the  recently  arrived  immigrants.  Out 
of  the  eastern  cities  came  the  Irish,  from  the  western  cities  the 
Germans,  all  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  nationality. 
Ninety  thousand  men  responded  to  the  first  call,  and  within  a 
month,  the  President  asked  for  42,000  more  volunteers  for  a  term 
of  three  years.  As  soon  as  possible,  the  regular  army  was  in- 
creased by  23,000  men,  while  18,000  were  enlisted  for  the  navy. 
From  this  time  on  the  Union  army  grew,  until  at  the  close  of  the 
war  it  numbered  more  than  one  million  men. 

The  Border  States.  Lincoln  sent  his  call  for  troops  to  all  the 
states  that  had  not  seceded.  He  met  with  open  defiance  from 
six  of  the  slaveholding  states  still  in  the  Union,  while  Maryland 
and  Delaware  took  a  middle  ground.  Meantime,  President 
Jefferson  Davis  of  the  Confederacy  issued  a  call  for  100,000 
volunteers,  and  prepared  to  follow  up  the  blow  struck  at  Sumter. 
It  was  plain  that  all  the  states  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's 
line  would  have  to  fight  on  one  side  or  the  other.    Arkansas, 


THE   APPEAL   TO   ARMS 


421 


Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee  joined  the  Confederacy 
between  April  and  June,  1861,  bringing  the  number  of  seceding 
states  Up  to  eleven.  With  the  secession  of  Virginia,  the  capital 
of  the  Confederacy  was  moved  to  Richmond.  Maryland, 
Kentucky,  and  Missouri  were  saved  for  the  Union  by  Lincoln's 
vigorous  action.  But  there  were  many  southern  sympathizers 
in  these  states  ;  and  at  least 
125,000  of  their  citizens 
served  in  the  Confederate 
armies. 

The  secession  of  the  four 
border  states  was  a  serious 
blow  to  the  Union  cause ; 
and  a  misfortune  equally 
great  was  the  loss  of  one 
man  who  now  gave  up  his 
command  in  the  federal 
army,  and  threw  in  his  lot 
with  Virginia,  his  native 
state.  A  son  of  "  Light 
Horse  Harry "  Lee  of  the 
Revolution,  Colonel  Robert 
E.  Lee  of  the  First  Cavalry 
was  regarded  as  the  ablest 
officer  in  the  Unites  States 
Army.  Lee's  character  was  as  noble  and  lofty  as  his  military 
ability  was  great.  He  was  reluctant  to  accept  the  idea  of  seces- 
sion, but  when  Virginia  seceded,  Lee  felt  that  his  first  loyalty 
was  to  his  own  state  and  his  own  people.  So  he  refused  the 
offer  of  the  command  of  the  Union  armies ;  and  on  April  2, 
after  looking  for  the  last  time  upon  his  beautiful  estate  at 
Arlington,  now  our  national  cemetery,  he  rode  forth  to  organize 
the  forces  of  Virginia. 

Relative  Strength  of  the  North  and  South.  In  population, 
wealth,  and  resources,  the  North  had  the  advantage  over  the 
South.  The  population  of  the  eleven  seceding  states  was  about 
9,000,000,  that  of  the  loyal  states,  22,000,000.    Of  the  southern 


Robert  E.  Lee 

"  Long  did  he  save  the  South  from  defeat, 
and  forever  from  reproach." 


422  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

2-  population,  nearly  4,000,000  were  slaves.  As  a  rule,  the  slaves 
remained  faithful  to  their  masters.  On  the  plantations  they 
labored  to  raise  the  crops  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  South; 
while  others  followed  their  masters  to  the  field,  and  performed 
much  of  the  work  of  the  camps.  But  with  four  persons  north 
of  the  Potomac  River  to  each  white  person  at  the  South,  the 
contest  was  unequal  from  the  beginning.  The  best  proof  of  the 
devoted  bravery  of  the  men  of  the  South  is  that  the  issue  was  so 
long  in  doubt. 

In  resources  too,  the  seceding  states  were  at  a  serious  dis- 
advantage. As  a  result  of  natural  conditions,  the  South  was 
almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  region.  Cities  were  small  and 
few ;  there  was  little  manufacturing,  hence  there  were  few  skilled 
mechanics.  Then,  too,  agriculture  was  not  diversified  ;  for  while 
the  South  raised  rice  and  tobacco  as  well  as  some  corn  and  wheat, 
cotton  was  the  great  staple.  On  King  Cotton  the  South  based  its 
hopes  for  success  in  the  war.  The  secession  leaders  believed  that 
England  would  never  tolerate  the  cutting  off  of  the  raw  material 
without  which  her  looms  must  stand  idle.  If  Great  Britain  and 
France  would  only  recognize  the  Confederacy  as  an  independent 
nation,  the  South  would  have  a  market  for  its  staple,  and  cotton 
would  purchase  the  goods  and  munitions  by  which  that  nation 
could  secure  its  independence.  But  if  its  ports  were  blockaded, 
the  South  with  its  few  manufactures  could  not  be  self-sustaining. 

In  contrast  with  the  agricultural  South  was  the  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  North,  abounding  in  great  industrial 
centers,  its  ships  whitening  every  sea.  Here  were  mechanics  by 
thousands ;  here  the  streams  were  all  in  harness,  and  mills  vied 
with  mines  in  producing  the  materials  of  peace,  soon  to  become 
the  instruments  of  war.  Here,  too,  there  was  a  schoolhouse  at 
each  crossroads ;  every  child  could  read  and  write,  while  at  the 
South  public  education  was  practically  unknown,  and  the  poor 
whites  were  as  illiterate  as  the  slaves  themselves.  Already 
Yankee  ingenuity  had  begun  to  utilize  labor-saving  machinery ; 
and  the  introduction  of  the  McCormick  reaper  into  the  wheat 
fields  of  the  Northwest  released  regiments  of  young  men  to  do 
battle  for  the  Union.   Hence  the  Secretary  of  War  could  say  in 


r  l    a  ir  t   i    c 


THE  STRATEGY,  BLOCKADE, 

AND  RESTRICTION  OF 

CONFEDERATE  TERRITORY 

1861-1865 

Restriction  of  territory  by  yearly 

campaigns  shown  by  colored  lines 

1  I  Federal  States 

|  I  Confederate  States 

Slave  holding  States  favorable  to  Federal 
Government  outlined  in  the  same  color  as 
the  Confederate  States. 

O 50  1O0 180 200 

Scale  of  Miles 


THE   APPEAL   TO   ARMS  423 

1861 :  "  The  reaper  is  to  the  North  what  slavery  is  to  the 
South." 

The  Strategy  of  the  Civil  War.  The  theatre  of  the  war  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  courses  of  the  Missouri,  Ohio,  and 
Potomac  rivers,  and  on  the  west  by  the  frontiers  of  Texas, 
Arkansas,  and  Missouri.  This  region  of  nearly  one  million  square 
miles  was  divided  by  the  Appalachian  barrier  into  two  distinct 
fields  of  operation,  that  of  Virginia  and  that  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  So  the  war  was  fought  out  on  two  stages,  the  one  in  the 
East  and  the  other  in  the  West.  In  the  East,  the  aim  of  the 
Union  armies  was  to  advance  upon  Richmond,  while  at  the  same 
time  protecting  their  own  capital  at  Washington.  In  the  West, 
the  object  was  first,  to  gain  control  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
would  cut  the  Confederacy  in  two;  and  second,  to  move  the 
Union  armies  down  the  Mississippi,  then  northeast  through 
Georgia  and  the  Carolinas  so  as  to  strike  Richmond  from  the 
south.  Thus  the  war  in  the  West  was  really  a  flanking  move- 
ment on  a  vast  scale,  which  if  successful  would  trap  the  Confed- 
erate forces  between  the  Army  of  the  East,  attacking  Richmond 
from  the  north,  and  the  Army  of  the  West,  advancing  on 
the  Confederate  capital  from  the  south. 

In  spite  of  long  delays  and  serious  defeats,  this  program  was 
finally  carried  out.  Progress  was  slow  in  the  eastern  theater 
of  the  war,  partly  because  of  geographic  conditions,  partly 
by  reason  of  the  splendid  generalship  of  Lee  and  Jackson.  But 
in  the  West,  geographic  conditions  favored  the  Union  armies 
which  secured  control  of  the  Mississippi  in  1863,  and  the 
following  year  captured  Atlanta  and  marched  northeast  through 
the  Carolinas. 

"  On  to  Richmond  !  "  Washington  and  Richmond  were  the 
chief  objectives,  and  the  road  between  the  two  capitals  would 
have  to  be  guarded  by  each  side.  When  the  fighting  began, 
General  Winfield  Scott,  a  loyal  Virginian  and  a  veteran  of  two 
wars,  was  the  commander  in  chief  of  the  Union  armies.  The 
Confederate  forces  were  massed  in  two  groups,  one  under 
General  Beauregard  at  Manassas  Junction,  about  thirty  miles 
from  Washington,   and  the  other  under  General  Joseph  E. 


424 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


Johnston  at  Winchester,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  The  people 
of  the  North  were  clamoring  for  an  advance  on  Richmond,  while 
the  newspapers  were  criticizing  the  inactivity  of  the  government. 
General  Scott  was  reluctant  to  make  an  attack  with  his  un- 
trained troops,  but  at  last  the  pressure  could  no  longer  be 
resisted.  Scott  ordered  General  McDowell,  his  second  in  com- 
mand, to  advance  toward  Manassas  Junction.  Members  of 
Congress  drove  out  from  Washington  to  see  the  fight ;  for  like 


% 


The  Capitol  of  the  Confederacy,  Richmond 

thousands  of  others  at  the  North,  they  believed  that  this  one 
battle  would  break  down  the  Confederacy  and  end  the  war. 

The  Battle  of  Manassas  or  Bull  Run,  July  21, 1861.  The  clash 
between  the  two  armies  came  at  Manassas  Junction,  near  the 
little  creek  of  Bull  Run  in  eastern  Virginia.  Both  armies  showed 
their  inexperience,  but  until  the  middle  of  the  afternoon,  the 
Union  troops  more  than  held  their  own.  Shortly  after  three 
o'clock,  the  Union  soldiers,  wearied  by  their  long  struggle,  were 
dismayed  by  the  arrival  of  Confederate  reinforcements.  It  was 
the  division  of  Johnston  who  had  eluded  the  Union  army  sent 
to  hold  him  in  check,  and  who  now  threw  his  men  into  action. 
The  Union  soldiers  fell  back;  soon  the  retreat  became  a  rout, 


THE   APPEAL   TO   ARMS  425 

the  rout  a  panic.  Men  threw  away  their  arms  and  equipment, 
and  it  was  a  disorganized  mob  that  fled  back  across  Bull  Run 
to  seek  refuge  in  Washington. 

General  Jackson,  to  whose  steadiness  the  Confederates  owed 
their  victory,  exclaimed  that  with  ten  thousand  fresh  troops  he 
could  capture  Washington  on  the  morrow.  Fortunately,  the 
Confederates  were  so  exhausted  that  they  were  not  able  to 
follow  up  their  victory.  The  North  had  been  taught  a  bitter 
lesson,  while  this  early  success  made  the  Confederates  over- 
confident. General  Sherman  afterwards  said  of  Bull  Run : 
"  It  was  the  best  planned  and  worst  fought  battle  of  the  war." 
The  Union  defeat  came  from  lack  of  training,  in  which  the 
Confederates  were  six  months  ahead. 

The  Blockade  of  the  Southern  Ports.  A  few  days  after  the 
attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation 
announcing  a  blockade  of  the  ports  of  the  southern  states.  To 
be  valid  according  to  the  law  of  nations,  a  blockade  must 
be  effective ;  that  is,  it  must  be  maintained  by  a  force  strong 
enough  to  prevent  access  to  the  blockaded  ports.  At  this  time 
there  were  only  ninety  ships  in  our  navy,  while  the  thirty-five 
hundred  miles  of  seacoast  to  be  guarded  stretched  from  the 
Potomac  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  A  large  navy  had 
to  be  created  ;  and  meantime  the  government  bought  every  craft 
that  could  be  put  to  use,  while  the  naval  yards  were  driven 
night  and  day  in  building  ships,  engines,  and  armament.  The 
North  had  to  provide  ships  for  the  blockade,  as  well  as  cruisers 
to  pursue  commerce  destroyers,  and  heavy  ships  to  deal  with 
fortresses. 

The  new  navy  performed  its  work  well,  and  slowly  but  surely 
it  throttled  the  foreign  commerce  so  vital  to  the  life  of  the 
Confederacy.  "  Uncle  Sam's  web  feet,"  as  Lincoln  called  the 
navy,  were  ever  active.  "  Wherever  the  ground  was  a  little 
damp,"  said  he,  "  they  have  been  and  made  their  tracks." 
Fortunately  for  the  cause  of  the  Union,  the  South  had  no  navy. 
Moreover,  she  had  practically  no  workshops  or  dockyards,  and 
few  skilled  mechanics  for  the  task  of  building  one.  Control  of  the 
sea  was  to  prove  the  greatest  single  advantage  on  the  side  of  the 


426 


THE    CIVIL  WAR 


North,  and  the  most  effective  weapon  in  bringing  about  the  down- 
fall of  the  Confederacy. 

Relations  with  Europe.  Both  the  North  and  the  South  were 
anxious  to  win  the  good  will  of  European  nations.  President 
Lincoln  instructed  our  representatives  abroad  to  maintain  that 
we  were  not  waging  war,  but  were  putting  down  an  insurrection 
against  the  laws  of  the  Union.  He  hoped  that  foreign  nations 
would  not  recognize  the  Confederates  as  belligerents ;  that  is, 


The  White  House  of  the  Confederacy 

President  Davis's  former  residence  in  Richmond,  now  used  as  a  museum. 
Each  state  in  the  Confederacy  has  equipped  a  room,  and  filled  it  with  relics  of 
the  "  Lost  Cause." 

would  not  recognize  their  right  to  carry  on  war.  The  Confeder- 
ates, on  the  other  hand,  expected  more  than  this.  Knowing  that 
the  mills  of  Europe  depended  on  the  cotton  of  the  South,  they 
were  confident  that  the  leading  powers  would  speedily  recognize 
the  Confederacy  as  an  independent  nation. 

As  it  turned  out,  Great  Britain  and  France  took  a  middle 
course  that  pleased  neither  the  North  nor  the  South.  On  the 
very  day  that  our  minister,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  arrived  in 
London,  the  British  government  issued  a  proclamation  which 


THE   APPEAL   TO   ARMS  427 

recognized  the  right  of  the  Confederates  to  wage  war.  The  North 
thought  that  this  action  was  taken  in  unfriendly  haste ;  but  by 
declaring  a  blockade,  President  Lincoln  himself  had  virtually 
announced  a  state  of  war.  France  took  the  same  action  as  Great 
Britain,  but  neither  nation  went  beyond  this.  The  Confederates 
hoped  to  the  last  that  Europe  would  intervene  and  recognize 
their  independence,  but  this  hope  was  never  realized.  Adams 
labored  early  and  late  to  hold  back  Great  Britain  from  recogniz- 
ing the  independence  of  the  Confederacy,  pointing  out  that 
this  action  would  be  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against 
the  United  States. 

The  aristocratic  class  in  England  favored  the  South,  and 
was  not  unwilling  to  see  the  Union  overthrown.  But  the  starving 
cotton  operatives  in  Lancashire,  and  the  great  body  of  England's 
common  people,  were  on  the  side  of  the  Union.  Slavery  was  the 
corner  stone  of  the  Confederacy ;  and  the  people  of  England 
disliked  slavery.  Napoleon  III,  the  ruler  of  France,  was 
unfriendly  to  the  North,  but  dared  not  act  without  the  support 
of  Great  Britain.  Of  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  only  Russia  stood 
firmly  by  the  Union  from  the  outset.  Perhaps  Russia's  own 
dread  of  revolution  led  her  to  look  with  disfavor  upon  the 
action  of  the  South.  Whatever  the  motive,  the  North  was 
encouraged  by  her  friendship. 

The  Trent  Affair.  After  the  Confederate  victory  at  Bull  Run, 
President  Davis  decided  to  send  two  envoys  to  represent  the 
Confederacy  in  Europe,  and  if  possible,  to  secure  recognition 
from  Great  Britain  and  France.  John  Slidell  and  James  M. 
Mason  were  chosen,  the  former  to  be  stationed  at  Paris,  the  latter 
at  London.  Running  through  the  blockade  at  Charleston  they 
reached  Havana,  and  took  passage  on  the  British  mailboat 
Trent  for  Southampton.  The  next  day  Captain  Wilkes,  com- 
manding the  United  States  gunboat  San  Jacinto,  stopped  the 
Trent  in  the  Bahama  Channel  with  a  shot  across  her  bow. 
Boarding  the  British  steamer,  he  removed  the  ministers  and 
their  secretaries.  The  Trent  was  then  allowed  to  proceed  on  her 
voyage,  while  Captain  Wilkes  landed  his  prisoners  at  Boston. 

The  North  was  wild  with  joy  over  this  exploit,  but  sober 


428  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

second  thought  convinced  Lincoln  and  his  Cabinet  that  the 
action  of  Captain  Wilkes  must  be  disavowed.  By  stopping  a 
vessel  on  the  high  seas  and  exercising  the  right  of  search,  he  had 
done  exactly  what  we  had  objected  to  Great  Britain's  doing  in 
1812.  Great  Britain  at  once  demanded  the  release  of  the  com- 
missioners, with  an  apology  for  their  arrest ;  and  meantime 
she  mobilized  troops  on  the  Canadian  border  and  made  ready 
for  war.  Our  government  soon  admitted  its  mistake,  and  after 
releasing  the  prisoners,  sent  them  to  England. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXIV. 
Chadwick,  F.  E.,  Causes  of  the  Civil  War  (American  Nation  Series). 
Harding,  S.  B.,  Select  Orations  Illustrating  American  History :    Henry 

Ward  Beecher's  Liverpool  Address,  pp.  392-413. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs.  XI- 

XII,  XVIII. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Appeal  to  Arms  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 

I-V. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  Outcome  of  the  Civil  War  (American  Nation  Series), 

chs.   XV- XVI. 
Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  III,  chs.  XIV- XV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Abraham  Lincoln.  Harding,  S.  B.,  Select  Orations  Illustrating 
American  History:  First  Inaugural  Address,  pp.  370-381  ;  Second 
Inaugural  Address,  pp.  417-420  ;  Morse,  J.  T.,  Abraham  Lincoln, 
2  vols.  (American  Statesmen  Series)  ;  Nicola y,  John  G.,  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

REFERENCES   FOR  PUPILS 
Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Civil  War  (Century  Readings),  pp.  3-46. 
Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VIII,  pp.  3-43. 
Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest,  chs.  XXII-XXIII. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  Division  and  Reunion,  pp.  213-219. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  Abraham  Lincoln.  Gordy,  W.  F.,  Abraham  Lincoln,  chs.  II- 
XIV  ;  Morgan,  James,  Abraham  Lincoln,  The  Boy  and  the  Man, 
chs.  VI- XX  XVI  ;   Wilson,  J.  G.,  The  Presidents,  II,  ch.  IX. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
THE   WAR   IN   THE   WEST 

Events  in  the  Border  States.  The  western  campaign  began  in 
earnest  in  1862,  although  there  were  some  military  operations 
in  Virginia  and  Missouri  during  1861.  The  people  in  the  western 
part  of  Virginia  owned  few  slaves,  and  were  strongly  opposed 
to  secession.  When  Virginia  seceded,  these  West  Virginians 
promptly  organized  a  Union  government  and  asked  President 
Lincoln  for  aid.  Captain  George  B.  McClellan,  a  West  Point 
graduate  who  had  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  succeeded  in 
driving  the  Confederate  forces  from  this  region ;  and  from 
that  time  on,  the  forty-eight  western  counties  of  Virginia  were 
under  Union  control.  Virginia  herself  was  now  getting  a  taste 
of  secession,  for  in  1863  Congress  admitted  West  Virginia  as  an 
independent  state. 

The  governor  of  Missouri  was  a  secessionist,  and  there  was  a 
strong  southern  party  in  the  state.  Missouri  was  saved  for  the 
Union  chiefly  by  the  energy  of  two  men,  Francis  P.  Blair,  a 
brother  of  Lincoln's  Postmaster-General,  and  Captain  Nathaniel 
Lyon  of  the  Union  army.  Aided  by  the  loyal  population  of  St. 
Louis,  Blair  and  Lyon  captured  the  Confederate  headquarters 
at  Camp  Jackson,  and  prevented  the  secessionists  from  seizing 
the  United  States  arsenal  at  St.  Louis.  Marching  his  troops  up 
the  Missouri  River,  Lyon  then  captured  Jefferson  City,  and 
drove  the  secessionist  governor  to  the  border  of  the  state. 
Kentucky  was  also  torn  by  dissension,  but  after  a  brief  attempt 
to  remain  neutral,  this  state  decided  for  the  Union  without 
serious  fighting. 

The  Campaign  in  Tennessee.  With  the  border  states  of  West 
Virginia,  Missouri,  and  Kentucky  in  control  of  the  Union  forces, 
the  campaign  of  1862  began  with  a  fierce  struggle  for  the  state 

429 


430 


THE    CIVIL  WAR 


of  Tennessee.  Since  there  were  few  railroads  in  the  western 
theatre  of  the  war,  it  was  necessary  for  the  Union  forces  to 
secure  control  of  the  rivers,  especially  the  Ohio,  Cumberland, 
Tennessee,  and  Mississippi.  In  the  fall  of  1861,  the  Confederate 
line  of  defense  stretched  from  Island  No.  10  in  the  Mississippi 
River  to  Columbus,  Kentucky;  and  from  this  point  through 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  on  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland 

rivers,  to  Bowling  Green, 
Kentucky.  This  line  of  de- 
fense might  be  pierced  by 
a  successful  attack  on  Forts 
Henry  and  Donelson  ;  for  if 
these  strongholds  were  cap- 
tured, the  Union  armies 
could  advance  up  the  courses 
of  the  Tennessee  and  the 
Cumberland  into  the  heart 
of  the  Confederacy.  This 
was  the  plan  of  campaign 
in  the  mind  of  Ulysses  S. 
Grant,  then  an  obscure  cap- 
tain in  charge  of  a  military 
depot  at  Cairo,  Illinois. 
While  General  George  B. 
McClellan  was  drilling  his 
army  along  the  Potomac, 
Grant  was  begging  his  su- 
periors for  permission  to 
attack  the  Confederate  lines  at  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson. 

Capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson.  Late  in  January,  1862, 
Grant  received  permission  to  carry  out  his  plan.  He  moved  up 
the  Tennessee  with  an  army  of  17,000  men,  aided  by  river  gun- 
boats under  the  command  of  Commodore  Foote.  The  com- 
mander of  Fort  Henry  surrendered  after  a  lively  cannonade, 
but  most  of  the  garrison  escaped  to  Fort  Donelson.  Grant  now 
prepared  to  advance  against  this  stronghold,  which  defended 
the  Cumberland  River  and  blocked  the  road  to  Nashville.   The 


Ulysses  S.  Grant 

Even  when  beaten,  Grant  could  with 
difficulty  be  kept  at  bay.  When  he  failed 
at  one  point,  he  kept  courage,  collected 
reinforcements,  and  tried  again  at  an- 
other. 


THE   WAR   IN   THE   WEST  431 

gunboats  were  sent  down  the  Tennessee,  to  return  by  way  of  the 
Ohio  into  the  Cumberland  River,  while  Grant  marched  his 
army  overland  and  threw  his  lines  around  the  fort. 

At  first  the  gunboats  were  driven  back  by  the  fire  from 
the  fort,  but  Grant's  opportunity  came  a  few  days  later,  when 
the  Confederate  garrison  tried  to  cut  a  way  of  escape  through 
his  lines.  Striking  with  all  his  force,  he  drove  the  enemy  back 
within  the  fortifications.  The  Confederate  commander,  General 
Buckner,  then  asked  Grant  for  terms,  and  received  the  reply 
soon  to  become  famous  all  over  the  North  :  "  No  terms  except 
an  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted.  I 
propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your  works."  Realizing  that 
he  could  not  hold  out  much  longer,  General  Buckner  surrendered 
the  fort  with  its  garrison  of  15,000  men.  Nine  days  later  Nash- 
ville, the  capital  of  Tennessee,  was  occupied  by  Union  forces. 
The  Confederates  had  to  abandon  Kentucky,  as  well  as  a  large 
part  of  Tennessee. 

The  Battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing.  After  the  loss  of 
Fort  Donelson,  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  commander  of 
the  Confederate  forces  in  the  West,  retreated  to  Corinth,  Missis- 
sippi. This  was  an  important  point,  since  it  controlled  the 
railroad  leading  from  Memphis  to  Chattanooga.  The  Con- 
federate troops  now  formed  a  second  line  of  defense,  stretching 
from  Memphis  to  Chattanooga  by  way  of  Corinth  and  northern 
Alabama.  General  Halleck,  commander  in  chief  of  the  Union 
armies  in  the  West,  ordered  Generals  Grant  and  Buell  to  unite 
their  forces  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  a  point  on  the  Tennessee 
River  about  twenty  miles  north  of  Corinth.  Before  Buell 
could  join  Grant,  the  Confederates  under  Johnston  moved  north 
from  Corinth  and  struck  Grant's  army  at  Shiloh  Church,  near 
Pittsburg  Landing.  The  Union  commander  was  apparently 
taken  by  surprise ;  his  troops  were  badly  placed  for  defense, 
since  they  were  on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  while  Buell's  rein- 
forcements were  to  join  him  from  the  northeast. 

The  battle  raged  all  day,  and  nightfall  found  the  Union  troops 
forced  to  the  river  banks,  where  they  found  protection  under  the 
fire  of  the  gunboats.    Unfortunately  for  the  Confederates,  their 


432 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


The  Campaigns  in  the  West 

After  the  loss  of  Memphis  and  New  Orleans,  the  Confederates  fortified  Vicks- 
burg  most  carefully.  Sherman's  attack  on  the  city  failed  while  Grant  was 
marching  south  toward  Jackson.  His  communications  being  cut  at  Holly  Springs, 
he  turned  about  to  Memphis,  came  down  the  river  in  transports,  and  after  a 
brilliant  campaign,  lay  siege  to  Pemberton's  army  in  Vicksburg. 


brave  commander,  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  was  killed 
in  the  afternoon  just  as  he  seemed  about  to  win  a  decisive 
victory.  His  successor,  General  Beauregard,  prepared  to  fight 
it  out  on  the  next  day,  and  even  telegraphed  to  Richmond  that 
victory  was  already  won.  But  General  Buell  came  up  during 
the  night  with  20,000  fresh  troops ;  and  after  eight  hours  more 
of  hard  fighting,  the  Confederates  retreated  to  their  main 
position  at  Corinth.  Although  claimed  as  a  Union  victory, 
Shiloh  was  won  at  a  terrible  cost.  Out  of  100,000  men  engaged 
in  both  armies,  the  Confederates  lost  10,000,  while  the  Union 
loss  was  13,000.  General  Halleck  now  came  to  Pittsburg  Landing 
to  take  personal  command  of  the  Union  army.     He  moved 


THE    WAR    IN   THE    WEST  433 

cautiously  against  Corinth,  which  the  Confederates  evacuated 
without  striking  a  blow.  Memphis  fell  as  soon  as  Corinth  was 
abandoned,  so  that  the  Confederate  second  line  of  defense  was 
broken. 

Confederate  Counter  Attack  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 
There  was  quiet  in  the  West  for  several  months  after  the  battle 
of  Shiloh ;  but  meantime  the  Confederates  were  preparing  for  a 
counter  attack  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  in  the  hope  of 
regaining  both  states  for  the  South.  General  Buell  was  given 
the  task  of  warding  off  these  attacks ;  but  General  Bragg  with  a 
strong  Confederate  army  managed  to  evade  him,  and  reached  a 
point  near  Louisville,  Kentucky.  The  cities  of  Louisville  and 
Cincinnati  were  in  panic  at  the  prospect  of  capture,  but  Buell's 
army  at  last  caught  up  with  the  Confederates  at  Perry ville, 
Kentucky.  After  a  sharp  engagement,  the  Confederate  army 
retreated  south  to  Chattanooga.  About  three  months  later, 
Bragg  again  advanced  north  as  far  as  Murfreesboro,  Tennessee, 
where  he  threw  up  intrenchinents.  A  Union  army  under  General 
Rosecrans  attacked  this  position  in  the  hard-fought  battle  of 
Stone  River  or  Murfreesboro.  The  Confederates  carried  away 
many  captured  guns  and  claimed  the  victory,  but  they  had  failed 
in  their  attempt  to  wrest  Tennessee  from  Union  control. 

The  Mississippi  Opened  to  Vicksburg.  After  the  loss  of 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  the  Confederates  strengthened  their 
posts  on  the  upper  Mississippi  at  New  Madrid  and  Island 
No.  10.  Aided  by  the  gunboats  which  had  done  such  effec- 
tive work  against  Fort  Henry,  General  Pope  captured  these 
positions  in  March  and  April,  1862.  Union  gunboats  then 
passed  down  the  river  to  Fort  Pillow  and  Memphis,  both  of 
which  surrendered  early  in  June.  The  Mississippi  was  then 
cleared  of  Confederate  forces  as  far  south  as  Vicksburg. 

The  Capture  of  New  Orleans,  April  25,  1862.  While  the 
Union  troops  under  Grant  were  opening  the  Mississippi  north 
of  Vicksburg,  Admiral  David  G.  Farragut  was  sent  with  a  fleet 
of  gunboats  to  capture  New  Orleans,  and  open  the  Mississippi 
from  the  south.  The  defenses  below  New  Orleans  were  very 
strong.     Two  powerful  forts  guarded  the  river,  while  an  enor- 


434 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


mous  chain  was  stretched  from  bank  to  bank  to  hold  back 
hostile  vessels  at  a  point  where  they  would  be  under  the  fire 
from  the  forts.  Above  this  barrier  was  a  fleet  of  Confederate 
gunboats  and  fireships,  ready  to  play  their  part.  Farragut 
ordered  two  of  his  gunboats  to  accomplish  the  dangerous 
task  of  breaking  this  chain.  His  ships  then  silenced  the  fire 
from  the  fort  and  moved  up  the  river  to  New  Orleans,  which 

lay  helpless  under  his  guns. 
This  important  city  was 
occupied  by  Union  troops 
on  May  1,  1862,  and  gov- 
erned by  General  Butler 
under  martial  law.  With 
grim  humor,  Butler  in- 
scribed on  the  statue  of 
Andrew  Jackson  his  famous 
toast :  "  The  federal  Union, 
it  must  be  preserved." 

The  capture  of  New  Or- 
leans made  it  easier  for  the 
Union  navy  to  enforce  the 
blockade ;  while  the  loss  of 
its  largest  city  and  principal 
seaport  was  a  serious  blow 
to  the  Confederacy.  As  a 
result  of  the  western  cam- 
paigns in  1862,  the  Union 
forces  held  all  of  Kentucky, 
the  western  and  central  portion  of  Tennessee,  and  all  of  the 
Mississippi  River  except  the  stretch  of  two  hundred  miles  from 
Port  Hudson  north  to  Vicksburg. 

Grant  Captures  Vicksburg,  July  3,  1863.  Fourteen  months 
after  the  fall  of  New  Orleans,  the  Union  army  under  General 
Grant  captured  the  last  Confederate  stronghold  on  the  Missis- 
sippi. Vicksburg  was  protected  from  attack  on  the  river  side  by  a 
line  of  bluffs,  covered  with  batteries.  This  natural  fortress  was 
held  by  a  strong  garrison,  while  about  fifty  miles  to  the  east  was 


David  G.  Farragut 

In  running  the  gantlet  of  the  forts  be- 
low New  Orleans,  Farragut  showed  himself 
a  commander  of  original  ideas,  with  the 
nerve  and  energy  to  carry  them  into  exe- 
cution. 


THE   WAR  IN   THE   WEST  435 

another  Confederate  army  under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  h^ 
Grant  finally  hit  upon  a  brilliant  but  daring  plan  of  attack.  His 
gunboats  and  transports  ran  past  the  batteries  at  night,  landing 
the  troops  at  Grand  Gulf,  a  point  about  forty  miles  south  of 
Vicksburg.  Grant  now  showed  the  qualities  of  leadership  that 
later  were  to  give  him  supreme  command  of  the  Union  armies. 
Directly  north  of  him  lay  Vicksburg  with  its  garrison,  while 
northeast  was  Jackson,  where  reinforcements  for  Vicksburg  were 
even  then  gathering.  Abandoning  his  base,  Grant  marched  his 
army  across  the  country  to  Jackson,  arriving  just  in  time  to  cut 
the  railroad  line  between  Jackson  and  Vicksburg,  and  to  place 
all  of  his  forces  between  the  divided  enemy.  After  driving  the 
outnumbered  Confederates  from  Jackson,  Grant  turned  east  to 
strike  at  Vicksburg.  When  his  attempt  to  carry  the  stronghold 
at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  failed,  he  threw  his  lines  around 
Vicksburg  for  a  siege.  Cut  off  from  supplies  and  reinforcements, 
Vicksburg  held  out  for  six  weeks,  then  surrendered  with  30,000 
Confederate  soldiers. 

Five  days  later  Port  Hudson  fell,  so  that  the  North  had 
accomplished  the  first  of  its  great  aims  in  the  war.  The  Missis- 
sippi was  opened  throughout  its  course,  and  the  Confederacy 
cut  in  two.  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  could  no  longer  send 
food  and  reinforcements  to  their  sister  states  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Another  important  result  was  to  bring  Grant  into 
prominence  as  the  most  successful  northern  general.  As  General 
Sherman  said,  Grant's  campaign  before  Vicksburg  was  the  work 
of  a  great  captain.  On  the  very  day  that  Vicksburg  surrendered, 
the  Union  army  in  the  East  turned  back  Lee  at  Gettysburg,  and 
the  twin  victories  gave  new  hope  to  the  North. 

The  Battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20,  1863.  While 
Grant  was  forcing  Vicksburg  to  surrender,  General  Rosecrans 
led  a  Union  army  against  Bragg,  the  commander  of  the  Con- 
federate forces  defending  Chattanooga.  In  order  to  reach  the 
enemy,  the  Confederates  marched  out  of  Chattanooga,  and  made 
a  detour  which  left  the  Union  army  between  them  and  the  city. 
Bragg  struck  fiercely  at  the  Union  left  wing  commanded  by 
General  Thomas,  but  that  brave  commander  could  not  be  forced 


436 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


back.  On  the  second  day  of  the  battle,  a  whole  division  was 
moved  from  the  Union  center  to  reinforce  the  left  wing.  General 
Longstreet,  one  of  the  most  successful  Confederate  leaders,  saw 
the  blunder  and  at  once  hurled  eight  brigades  through  the 
breach.  The  Union  center  was  crushed,  and  the  right  wing 
forced  back.   With  two  thirds  of  his  army  fleeing  in  panic  along 

the  road  to  Chattanooga, 
Rosecrans  sent  word  to 
Thomas  to  protect  the  rear 
as  best  he  could.  Although 
surrounded  on  three  sides 
and  outnumbered  two  to 
one,  Thomas  held  his  posi- 
tion until  nightfall.  His 
splendid  resistance  saved 
the  army  from  destruction, 
and  won  for  him  the  title  of 
"The  Rock  of  Chicka- 
mauga." 

The  Battles  of  Lookout 
fountain  and  Missionary 
Ridge.  Holding  the  de- 
feated Union  troops  penned 
up  in  Chattanooga,  General 
Bragg  proceeded  to  fortify 
Lookout  Mountain  and 
Missionary  Ridge,  heights 
that  commanded  the  town  on  the  east  and  south.  The  Con- 
federate batteries  on  Lookout  Mountain  shelled  the  railroad, 
and  with  their  supplies  cut  off,  the  Union  forces  in  Chatta- 
nooga faced  starvation.  At  this  critical  time,  General  Grant 
was  placed  in  command  of  all  the  Union  armies  in  the  West, 
with  orders  to  relieve  Chattanooga.  "  Fighting  Joe  "  Hooker 
was  also  sent  from  Virginia  with  16,000  men,  while  Sherman 
was  ordered  from  Vicksburg  with  a  still  larger  force. 

Grant's  first  work  was  to  open  up  railway  connections,  so 
as  to  furnish  the  besieged  army  with  food.    He  accomplished 


James  Longstreet 

One  of  the  greatest  fighters  of  the  Con- 
federacy. He  won  especial  distinction  at 
Manassas,  Fredericksburg,  Chickamauga, 
and  in  the  Wilderness  Campaign. 


THE   WAR   IN   THE   WEST 


437 


this  by  building  a  new  railway  line,  then  made  ready  to  at- 
tack the  Confederates.  Sherman  was  given  command  of  the 
left  wing  of  the  Union  army,  Thomas  was  placed  in  the 
center,  and  Hooker  on  the  right  wing.  The  Confederate  line 
stretched  from  the  northern  end  of  Missionary  Ridge  along 
the  crest  to  Rossville  Gap,  a  distance  of  about  six  miles. 

When  the  battle  began, 
Sherman's  troops  were  for 
a  time  delayed  by  a  hidden 
ravine  across  the  ridge. 
Meantime,  Hooker's  men 
stormed  up  the  sides  of 
Lookout  Mountain,  and 
placed  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
on  its  peak  ;  while  the  Union 
center  under  Thomas  swept 
over  the  ridge  opposite,  and 
seized  the  Confederate  bat- 
teries and  trenches.  "  By 
whose  order  is  this  ? ' '  asked 
Grant,  as  he  saw  the  blue 
lines  charging  up  the  heights, 
instead  of  merely  seizing  the 
lower  slopes  as  he  had  com- 
manded. "  By  their  own, 
I  fancy,"  said  Thomas,  who 
stood  near  him.  But  the 
ridge  was  won,  and  Bragg  was  forced  to  abandon  the  siege  of 
Chattanooga,  taking  his  army  into  winter  quarters  at  Dalton, 
in  northern  Georgia.  The  battles  around  Chattanooga  were 
nearly  as  decisive  as  Vicksburg  itself,  for  all  of  Tennessee  was 
now  securely  held  for  the  Union,  and  the  victorious  Union  army 
at  Chattanooga  held  the  key  to  Atlanta. 

Sherman's  Campaign  against  Atlanta.  As  a  result  of  his 
victories  at  Vicksburg  and  Chattanooga,  Grant  was  made 
commander  in  chief  of  all  the  Union  armies,  with  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant-General.   Early  in  1864  he  left  for  the  East,  to  take 


George  H.  Thomas 

This  Virginian  was  of  the  same  good 
lineage  as  Robert  E.  Lee,  but  unlike  him, 
he  espoused  the  Union  cause.  Rosecrans 
said  of  Thomas  that  he  was  as  wise  in 
council  as  he  was  brave  in  battle. 


438 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


> 


command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  operating  in  Virginia 
against  General  Lee ;  and  command  of  the  forces  in  Chat- 
tanooga was  given  to  General  Sherman,  another  proven  leader. 
General  Bragg  was  succeeded  by  one  of  the  best  Confederate 
generals,  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  so  that  each  army  had  a  new 
commander. 

Sherman  marched  toward  the  Confederates  at  Dalton  early 
in  1864,  but  finding  their  position  too  strong  for  a  direct  attack 

moved  around  their  left 
flank  and  approached  the 
railroad  leading  to  Atlanta. 
This  railroad  Johnston  had 
to  defend  at  all  hazards,  so 
he  abandoned  his  trenches 
and  took  up  a  new  position. 
Again  Sherman  moved 
around  his  left  flank,  and 
this  maneuver  was  repeated 
until  the  Union  army  was 
within  six  miles  of  Atlanta. 
The  southern  people  blamed 
Johnston  for  his  frequent 
retreats,  so  he  was  replaced 
by  General  Hood,  an  im- 
petuous leader  who  could  be 
relied  on  to  fight.  Sherman 
defeated  Hood  in  three 
pitched  battles,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 3,  1864,  the  Union 
army  occupied  Atlanta. 
The  loss  of  Atlanta  was  a  serious  blow  to  the  South,  for 
the  railroad  which  carried  supplies  to  Lee's  army  in  Virginia  ran 
through  this  city.  Hood  now  marched  his  army  to  a  point  forty- 
five  miles  north  of  Atlanta,  in  an  attempt  to  seize  the  railroad 
on  which  Sherman  depended  for  supplies.  Defeated  here,  he 
made  a  wide  detour  to  the  west  and  north,  so  as  to  threaten  the 
railroad  at  Nashville.     Still  Sherman  held  on  at  Atlanta,  but 


Joseph  E.  Johnston 

Ranks  with  Lee  and  Jackson  as  one  of 
the  three  great  soldiers  of  the  South.  At 
Vicksburg,  Grant  told  Sherman  that  John- 
ston was  the  only  general  he  feared  on  the 
southern  side. 


L 


THE    WAR    IN 


THE    WEST  439 


sent  General  Thomas  north  to  defend  Nashville.  Thomas 
destroyed  Hood's  army  in  a  fierce  battle  late  in  the  year  1864 ; 
and  this  left  the  Confederates  without  any  troops  to  oppose 
Sherman's  march  through  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas. 

Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea.  After  burning  everything  in 
Atlanta  that  could  be  made  of  service  to  the  enemy,  and  destroy- 
ing the  railroad  line  to  Chattanooga,  Sherman  began  his  famous 
march  to  the  sea.  He  had  cut  the  telegraph  lines,  so  that  for 
a  month  the  North  only 
learned  of  his  movements 
from  the  Confederate  news- 
papers. Sherman's  purpose 
was  to  destroy  the  military 
resources  of  Georgia  in  his 
devastating  inarch,  then  by 
turning  northward,  to  ex- 
ecute the  final  flanking 
movement  against  Rich- 
mond. The  Union  troops, 
called  "  Sherman's  bum- 
mers" by  the  Southerners, 
marched  in  four  parallel  col- 
umns, covering  a  zone  sixty 
miles  wide.  They  burned 
houses  and  barns,  destroyed 
the  growing  crops,  carried 
off  live  stock,  and  laid  waste 
the  entire  region  through 
which    they     passed.     On 

Christmas  Eve,  1864,  President  Lincoln  received  a  telegram 
which  read  :  "  I  beg  to  present  you  as  a  Christmas  gift  the  city 
of  Savannah,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  heavy  guns,  plenty  of 
ammunition,  also  about  twenty-five  thousand  bales  of  cotton.  — 
W.  T.  Sherman,  Major-General." 

Leaving  Savannah  in  January,  1865,  Sherman  headed  his 
forces  northward  through  the  Carolinas  in  order  to  threaten 
Richmond  from  the  south,  while  Grant  with  the  Army  of  the 


William  Tecumseh  Sherman 

Grant's  most  trusted  lieutenant.  "To 
you  and  McPherson,"  wrote  Grant  to 
Sherman,  "above  all  others,  I  feel  indebted 
for  whatever  I  have  had  of  success." 


3 


440  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

Potomac  was  attacking  from  the  north.  Sherman's  army 
occupied  the  capital  of  South  Carolina  on  February  17,  and 
reached  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  about  two  months  later.  His 
successful  campaign  was  now  at  an  end,  for  on  April  9,  1865, 
General  Lee  surrendered  his  army  at  Appomattox.  The  other 
Confederate  generals  hastened  to  follow  the  example  of  their 
chief;  and  Sherman  received  the  surrender  of  Johnston's  forces 
in  North  Carolina.  Thus  the  war  in  the  West  had  accomplished 
both  of  its  aims.  The  Confederacy  was  first  cut  in  two  by  open- 
ing the  Mississippi  throughout  its  entire  length.  Next,  by  his 
vast  flanking  movement  through  the  heart  of  the  South,  Sher- 
man proved  that  the  Confederacy  was,  as  he  said,  an  empty 
eggshell,  incapable  of  defending  its  interior  lines.  Even  if  Lee 
could  have  held  out  longer,  Richmond  must  surely  have  fallen 
as  the  two  jaws  of  the  nut-cracker  closed  in,  —  Grant's  army 
from  the  north  and  the  army  of  Sherman  from  the  south. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXV. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs.  XX, 

XXII. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Appeal  to  Arms,  chs.  VI-VII,  XV,  XVIII. 
Hosmer,  J.  K,  The  Outcome  of  the  Civil  War,  chs.  II-III,  VII. 
Rhodes,  J.  F.,   History  of  the  United  States,  III,  ch.   XVI  ;    V,  ch. 

XXIV. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Civil  War,  pp.  47-112. 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VIII,  pp.  58-118. 

Hitchcock,  Ripley,  Editor,  Decisive  Battles  of  America,  chs.  XVI- 

XVIII. 
Johnston,  R.  M.,  Leading  American  Soldiers,  pp.  137-362. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 


THE    WAR   IN   THE   EAST 

General  McClellan  Takes  Command.  While  the  Union 
armies  were  winning  victories  in  the  West,  fortune  in  the 
eastern  campaigns  seemed  to  favor  the  South.  After  the  rout 
of  the  northern  army  at  Bull  Run,  General  George  B.  McClellan 
was  recalled  from  West 
Virginia  to  take  command 
of  the  Union  forces  around 
Washington.  McClellan 
was  a  splendid  drillmaster. 
No  longer  were  officers  and 
men  seen  loafing  about  the 
streets  of  Washington,  for 
the  new  commander  put 
them  all  to  work.  He  built 
fortifications,  drilled  and 
equipped  the  raw  regi- 
ments, and  soon  brought 
order  out  of  chaos. 

By  the  close  of  1861,  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  was 

a    well    drilled     and     well  George  B.  McClellan 

equipped  machine,  and  the 
people  of  the  North  were 
anxious  to  see  it  put  to 
use.  But  McClellan  was  not  yet  ready  to  advance.  The  Con- 
federates under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  were  still  near 
the  battle  field  of  Manassas,  thirty-five  miles  distant.  Although 
his  own  force  was  much  smaller  than  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 

441 


A  brilliant  leader,  beloved  by  the  whole 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  Lee  himself  held  a 
high  opinion  of  McClellan's  military  ability. 


442  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

Johnston  preserved  a  bold  front ;  and  the  imagination  of  Mc- 
Clellan  saw  thousands  where  there  were  scarcely  hundreds.  In 
short,  the  new  commander  of  the  Union  army  had  all  the 
qualities  of  a  successful  general  except  initiative.  As  Sheridan 
afterward  said,  in  his  rough,  direct  speech :  "  The  army  was 
all  right.  The  trouble  was  that  the  commander  never  went 
out  to  lick  anybody,  but  always  thought  first  of  keeping  from 
getting  licked." 

The  Peninsular  Campaign.  Losing  patience  at  McClellan's 
long  delay,  President  Lincoln  issued  a  positive  command  for  a 
general  advance  of  the  Union  armies  on  Washington's  Birthday, 
1862.  There  were  two  possible  routes  along  which  the  Union 
forces  might  move  against  Richmond.  The  first  was  a  direct 
march  southward,  difficult  because  Richmond  was  protected  on 
the  north  by  rivers,  creeks,  and  an  almost  impassable  wilderness. 
The  second  route  was  to  send  the  army  on  ships  to  Fortress 
Monroe,  and  from  this  base,  to  strike  the  Confederate  capital 
from  the  east. 

Lincoln  and  his  advisers  wished  to  make  the  attack  bj^  a 
direct  southward  movement,  so  as  to  keep  the  Union  army 
between  the  enemy  and  Washington ;  but  McClellan  decided 
in  favor  of  the  water  route.  His  famous  Peninsular  Campaign 
lasted  from  March  until  August,  1862,  and  ended  in  disaster  for 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Landing  100,000  men  at  the  end 
of  the  peninsula  between  the  York  and  the  James  rivers,  the 
Union  commander  took  Yorktown  and  Williamsburg,  then 
pushed  northward  until  he  reached  a  point  about  ten  miles  east 
of  Richmond.  Here  McClellan  expected  to  be  reinforced  by  the 
army  of  McDowell,  which  had  marched  overland  to  a  point  in 
central  Virginia,  near  Fredericksburg.  If  the  two  Union  armies 
could  unite  before  Richmond,  they  would  greatly  outnumber 
the  Confederates,  and  could  probably  capture  the  capital. 

Stonewall  Jackson's  Campaign  in  the  Valley.  In  this 
critical  hour,  Stonewall  Jackson  saved  the  Confederacy  by  his 
brilliant  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Jackson  defeated 
three  Union  armies  in  turn ;  he  caused  so  much  alarm  for  the 
safety  of  Washington  that  Lincoln  ordered  McDowell  into  the 


Campaign  of  1802 


Campaign  of  1864-65  * 
Railroads 


The  Campaigns  in  the  East 


443 


444  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

valley  at  the  very  moment  when  he  should  have  been  marching 
on  Richmond.  His  object  accomplished,  Jackson  recrossed  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  joined  Lee  for  the  defense  of  his  capital.  "  In 
forty-eight  days  he  had  marched  six  hundred  and  seventy-six 
miles,  fought  five  hard  battles,  accomplishing  in  each  his  pur- 
pose, baffled  three  federal  armies,  his  seventeen  thousand 
matched  against  fifty  thousand,  brought  off  his  prisoners  and 
booty  unmeasured,  ruined  the  campaign  of  McClellan,  and 
stricken  the  North  with  terror.  He  now  stood,  with  army 
diminished  indeed,  but  trained,  seasoned,  and  eager  for  new 
efforts,  while  his  own  reputation  was  forever  fixed  as  one  of  the 
world's  great  captains." 

Lee's  Defense  of  Richmond.  The  defense  of  Richmond  was 
at  first  intrusted  to  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  He  was 
severely  wounded  early  in  the  Peninsular  Campaign,  after 
which  General  Robert  E.  Lee  was  made  commander  in  chief 
of  the  Confederate  armies.  Lee's  defense  of  his  capital  was 
skillful,  and  with  a  smaller  force  he  outgeneralled  his  adversary. 
The  Union  army  reached  a  point  about  five  miles  from  Rich- 
mond, where  a  severe  battle  was  fought.  Disappointed  at  not 
receiving  the  expected  aid  from  McDowell,  McClellan  then 
decided  on  a  change  of  base  to  the  James  River.  Fighting  as  he 
retreated  the  terrible  series  of  combats  known  as  the  Seven 
Days'  Battles,  his  army  at  last  reached  Harrison's  Landing, 
where  it  found  protection  under  the  guns  of  the  navy.  McClellan 
had  lost  15,000  men  in  the  Seven  Days'  Battles  without  gaining 
any  advantage.  He  was  soon  afterwards  recalled,  while  the  dis- 
heartened Army  of  the  Potomac  was  brought  back  to  Washing- 
ton on  the  transports. 

Second  Battle  of  Manassas  or  Bull  Run.  A  new  Army  of 
Virginia  was  now  organized  under  the  command  of  General 
John  Pope,  who  had  won  some  success  in  the  West.  General 
Lee  moved  north  against  his  new  adversary,  and  on  the  same 
field  of  Manassas  where  the  war|  began,  the  Union  forces  suffered 
another  severe  defeat.  Washington  became  panic  stricken  at  the 
prospect  of  capture,  and  McClellan  was  once  more  called  upon 
to  defend  the  capital. 


THE    WAR   IN   THE    EAST 


445 


The  Battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  General  Lee 
now  planned  to  carry  the  war  across  the  Potomac  into  Mary- 
land. He  hoped  to  obtain  recruits  among  the  many  southern 
sympathizers  in  that  state,  while  at  the  same  time  he  could 
threaten  Baltimore  and  Washington  with  capture.  Fording  the 
Potomac  at  Leesburg,  the  Confederate  army  marched  to 
Frederick,  Maryland.  Stonewall  Jackson  made  a  sudden  dash 
upon  Harper's  Ferry,  capturing  12,000  prisoners,  together  with 
immense  quantities  of  arms  and  supplies ;  than  he  rejoined  his 
chief  at  Sharpsburg.   Moving  with  his  usual  caution,  McClellan 


Lincoln  in  Conference  with  His  Generals  at  Antietam 
From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collection,  the  War  Department,  Washington. 

finally  reached  Antietam,  Maryland,  where  one  of  the  bloodiest 
battles  of  the  war  was  fought.  The  result  was  not  decisive,  but 
Lee  withdrew  his  army  across  the  Potomac,  while  McClellan 
with  his  larger  force  made  no  attempt  to  cut  off  his  retreat. 
McClellan  fancied,  as  always,  that  the  enemy  outnumbered  him, 
and  so  what  should  have  been  a  splendid  Union  victory  was 
hardly  more  than  a  drawn  battle. 

The  Disaster  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 1862.  Baffled 
and  disappointed,  Lee  retreated  into  Virginia,  having  won  few 
recruits  for  his  army  in  Maryland.  McClellan  followed  so  slowly 
that    he   was    again    removed    from    command,   and   General 


446  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

Ambrose  E.  Burnside  appointed  in  his  place.  Burnside  himself 
did  not  believe  that  he  was  competent  to  command  a  large  army, 
and  this  was  soon  proven  by  a  Union  disaster.  Aiming  to  march 
directly  against  Richmond,  Burnside  led  his  troops  across  the 
Rappahannock  at  Fredericksburg,  where  Lee's  army  of  80,000 
men  was  placed  on  a  line  of  hills  facing  an  interval  of  low  ground. 
In  a  hopeless  attempt  to  dislodge  the  enemy,  Burnside  hurled 
seven  divisions  in  turn  against  this  strong  position.  Grief  and 
despair  filled  the  hearts  of  the  Union  soldiers  who  watched  this 
useless  sacrifice  of  their  comrades.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac 
lost  12,000  men  in  what  was  soon  known  as  the  "  horror  of 
Fredericksburg."  After  the  battle,  scores  of  officers  sent  in 
their  resignations,  while  the  men  deserted  by  hundreds.  The 
demoralization  continued  until  General  Burnside  was  removed 
from  command,  and  "  Fighting  Joe  "  Hooker  appointed  in  his 
stead. 

Another  Union  Defeat  at  Chancellor sville,  May  2-3,  1863. 
Hooker  was  a  good  fighter,  the  soldiers  loved  him,  and  his  ap- 
pointment restored  the  broken  spirit  of  his  army.  But  he  was  no 
match  for  Lee  and  Jackson,  who  attacked  the  Union  army  at 
Chancellorsville,  about  nine  miles  from  Fredericksburg.  Lee 
divided  his  army,  sending  Stonewall  Jackson  with  30,000  troops 
to  make  a  roundabout  march  so  as  to  attack  Hooker's  army  on 
the  right  and  rear.  Meantime,  Lee  himself  with  only  16,000  men 
pretended  that  he  was  about  to  make  a  frontal  attack  on 
Chancellorsville. 

The  Union  soldiers  on  the  right  wing  had  stacked  their  arms, 
never  dreaming  of  an  attack  from  that  quarter,  when  Jackson's 
army  suddenly  fell  upon  them.  No  troops  not  under  arms  could 
have  stood  against  such  a  charge,  and  the  Union  lines  fell  back 
in  panic.  But  when  evening  came  on,  Jackson's  reckless  daring 
saved  Hooker's  army  from  destruction.  Riding  in  advance  of 
his  men  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  line,  the  Confederate  general 
came  suddenly  upon  the  Union  outposts.  As  the  group  of  horse- 
men turned  and  galloped  back,  they  were  fired  upon  by  their  own 
men,  who  mistook  them  for  Union  cavalry.  Among  the  victims 
was  Jackson  himself,  who  received  a  mortal  wound. 


THE    WAR   IN    THE    EAST 


447 


Their  great  leader  died  a  few  days  afterwards ;  and  the 
Confederates  could  better  have  spared  an  army.  A  man  of  deep 
religious  convictions  and  intense  piety,  Jackson  always  carried 
his  Bible  with  him,  and  never  went  into  action  without  prayer. 
At  first  his  recovery  was  hoped  for,  and  when  his  left  arm  was 
amputated  by  the  surgeon, 
Lee  said  to  him :  "  Gen- 
eral, you  have  fared  better 
than  I,  for  you  have  lost 
only  your  left  arm,  while  I 
have  lost  my  right."  Lee 
afterwards  declared  that  if 
Jackson  had  been  at  Gettys- 
burg, that  battle  would 
have  been  a  Confederate 
victory  ;  and  the  South  will 
always  believe  that  had  he 
lived,  the  cause  of  the  Con- 
federacy would  have  been 
won. 

The  Tide  Turns  at  Get- 
tysburg, July  1-3,  1863. 
While  the  South  was  still 
rejoicing  over  Chancellors- 
ville,  Lee  determined  to 
carry  the  war  into  the 
North  for  three  reasons.  He  wanted  that  section  to  experience 
some  of  the  hardships  of  invasion ;  he  realized  that  Vicksburg 
was  about  to  fall,  and  wished  to  offset  its  loss  by  the  capture 
of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  even  Washington  itself ;  and 
finally,  knowing  that  the  North  was  disheartened  over  the  war, 
he  hoped  by  a  great  victory  on  northern  soil  to  conquer  a  peace. 
Pouring  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  Lee's  three  corps  passed 
through  Hagerstown,  then  on  to  Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania. 
The  Army  of  the  Potomac  marched  northward  in  a  course 
parallel  to  that  of  the  enemy,  keeping  between  Lee's  forces  and 
Washington.      Hooker  gave  up  his  command  in  this  critical 


Thomas  J.  (Stonewall)  Jackson 

From  a  war  time  photograph,  con- 
sidered by  Mrs.  Jackson  to  be  the  best 
portrait  of  her  husband.  Foreign  critics 
regard  Jackson  as  the  greatest  military- 
genius  of  the  Civil  War. 


-7 


448 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


hour,  and  was  replaced  by  General  George  Meade.  Near  the 
little  town  of  Gettysburg,  the  two  armies  met  in  a  three  days' 
conflict  which  proved  the  turning  point  of  the  war. 

In  the  first  day's  battle,  the  Union  forces  were  driven  back 
from  their  position,  and  General  Reynolds,  who  commanded  the 
left  wing,  was  killed.  On  the  second  day,  the  Confederates  made 
another  powerful  attack  against  Culp's  Hill  and  Little  Round 
Top  ;  but  while  the  Union  lines  were  pushed  back,  they  were  not 


Pickett's  Cnarge  at  Gettysburg 

This  hand-to-hand  fighting  at  the  stone  wall  took  place  after  Pickett's  men 
had  advanced  for  a  distance  of  nearly  one  mile,  in  the  face  of  heavy  artillery  fire. 

broken.  That  night  General  Lee  held  a  council  of  war.  Both 
wings  of  his  army  had  been  held  in  check,  with  heavy  losses  ;  but 
Lee  was  determined  to  fight  the  battle  to  a  finish.  Meade  also 
gathered  his  generals  in  a  midnight  council,  and  there  was  no 
voice  except  in  favor  of  fighting  it  out  on  the  morrow.  To  the 
commander  of  the  Union  center,  Meade  remarked :  "  Your 
turn  will  come  to-morrow.  To-day  Lee  has  struck  the  flanks ; 
next  it  will  be  the  center." 

On  July  third  came  the  dramatic  event  of  the  three  days' 


THE   WAR   IN   THE   EAST 


449 


struggle.  Lee  ordered  his  able  second  in  command,  General 
Longstreet,  to  charge  the  Union  center  posted  on  Cemetery 
Ridge.  In  vain  Longstreet  remonstrated  with  his  chief,  urging 
that  no  fifteen  thousand  men  could  capture  such  a  position.  Lee 
pronounced  for  the  assault,  and  Pickett's  division  was  ordered 
forward.  The  Union  batteries  opened  a  terrible  fire  upon  the 
approaching  column,  which  melted  away  as  it  neared  the  federal 
line.  A  small  remnant  of 
the  charging  host  actually 
penetrated  the  Union  center, 
but  a  few  moments  later 
Hancock's  men  sent  them 
reeling  backwards.  The 
foothold  which  they  gained 
for  a  brief  space  is  to-day 
marked  by  a  monument ;  it 
commemorates  "  the  high 
tide  of  the  rebellion,"  for  the 
failure  of  Pickett's  charge 
spelled  the  doom  of  the  Con- 
federate cause.  Lee's  army 
stood  defiantly  on  Seminary 
Ridge  for  twenty-four  hours 
longer,  then  slowly  with- 
drew across  the  Potomac. 
Gettysburg  was  a  Union 
victory,  but  the  North  was 
bitterly  disappointed  at  the 
escape  of  the  invading  army.  "  We  had  them  within  our  grasp," 
cried  Lincoln,  his  heart  torn  with  grief.  "  We  had  only  to  stretch 
forth  our  hands  and  they  were  ours,  and  nothing  I  could  say 
or  do  could  make  the  army  move.  Our  army  held  the  war  in 
the  hollow  of  their  hand  and  they  would  not  close  it." 

The  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac.  In  March,  1862,  the  most 
interesting  naval  battle  of  the  war  took  place  at  Hampton 
Roads,  off  the  coast  of  Virginia.  This  was  the  fight  between 
the  Confederate  warship  Merrimac  and  the  Union  vessel  Monitor. 


George  Gordon  Meade 

The  general  who  broke  the  spell  of  Lee's 
victories.  At  Gettysburg,  Meade's  good 
sense  and  steadfast  courage  carried  the 
country  through  the  greatest  crisis  of 
the  war. 


450  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

When  the  Confederates  captured  Norfolk  they  raised  the  Mer- 
rimac,  which  had  been  sunk  to  prevent  her  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  This  vessel  was  equipped  with  a  casement 
or  box  heavily  plated  with  iron,  and  pierced  for  cannon.  Steam 
was  used  as  the  motive  power,  while  from  her  bow  projected  an 
iron  ram  like  that  on  an  ancient  galley.  On  March  8,  the  Merri- 
mac moved  out  from  Norfolk  to  attack  the  five  stately  wooden 
frigates  guarding  Hampton  Roads.  The  Union  ships  discharged 
their  broadsides  at  this  strange  assailant,  but  the  balls  glanced 


Battle  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac 

The  Monitor  was  of  776  tons  burden,  with  two  11 -inch  guns  fired  from  a 
revolving  turret ;    the  Merrimac  was  a  ship  of  3500  tons,  carrying  ten  cannon. 

off  harmlessly  from  her  iron  sides.  She  pierced  -the  Cumberland 
with  her  ram,  sending  that  frigate  to  the  bottom,  then  turned 
her  guns  on  the  Congress,  which  presently  went  up  in  flames. 

Mistress  of  the  situation,  with  the  three  remaining  frigates 
aground  on  the  shoals,  the  Merrimac  then  withdrew ;  she  was 
certain  of  her  prey,  and  only  waited  for  daylight  to  complete 
the  work  of  destruction.  Next  morning  a  new  antagonist 
appeared  on  the  scene.  This  was  the  Monitor,  a  queer-looking 
craft  built  by  John  Ericsson  in  the  Brooklyn  navy  yards.  This 
"  cheese-box  on  a  raft,"  as  it  was   described   by  a  spectator, 


THE   WAR   IN   THE   EAST  451 

consisted  of  a  round  turret  about  three  feet  high,  mounted  on  a 
flat  deck.  This  turret  revolved,  and  carried  two  guns  that 
could  be  turned  in  any  direction  against  the  enemy.  In  the 
duel  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac,  neither  vessel 
could  make  much  impression  on  the  other.  Still  the  advantage 
was  with  the  Monitor,  for  her  opponent  retired  from  the 
combat,  while  that  day's  battle  put  an  end  to  the  danger  that 
the  Confederates  might  control  the  ocean.  This  contest  revo- 
lutionized sea  fighting.  The  day  of  the  wooden  warship  was 
over,  and  the  era  of  ironclads  had  come.  The  oak-ribbed  and 
white-winged  navies  that  had  ruled  the  ocean  for  centuries 
became  obsolete,  and  all  the  world  began  to  build  fleets  of  steel 
and  steam. 

Grant  Is  Made  Lieutenant  General,  1864.  Six  different 
generals  in  turn  had  commanded  the  Union  forces  in  the  East, 
but  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  no  nearer  Richmond  than  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war.  Lincoln  now  turned  to  the  commander 
who  had  won  the  brilliant  campaigns  against  Fort  Donelson  and 
Vicksburg.  Entering  the  war  as  captain  of  a  volunteer  company, 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  slow  to  win  promotion,  for  he  was  not  in 
favor  with  his  superiors  at  Washington.  At  last  his  real  military 
ability  won  for  him  the  supreme  command  of  the  Union  armies. 
Recalled  from  the  scene  of  his  western  victories,  Grant  at  once 
began  an  active  campaign  against  Richmond. 

The  Wilderness  Campaign,  May- June,  1864.  Grant  planned 
to  make  a  direct  attack  on  Richmond  from  the  north.  He 
crossed  the  Rapidan  in  May,  1864,  and  began  the  Wilderness 
Campaign,  so-called  because  of  the  tangle  of  undergrowth  that 
covered  this  region.  In  this  campaign,  the  new  commander 
in  chief  lost  34,000  men  in  sixteen  days  without  gaining  any 
advantage.  With  grim  determination,  he  announced :  "  I 
propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer."  At 
last  by  a  flanking  movement,  Grant  brought  his  army  to  Cold 
Harbor,  six  miles  from  the  fortifications  of  Richmond.  Here  he 
ordered  a  grand  assault  by  80,000  men,  but  the  attack  was 
repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter.  Convinced  that  he  could  not 
crush  Lee  in  battle,  Grant  settled  down  to  besiege  Richmond, 


452 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


following  a  plan  quite  similar  to  that  of  McClellan  in  his  Penin- 
sular Campaign. 

Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Lee  was  in  desperate 
plight  at  Richmond,  and  hoping  to  relieve  the  city,  he  sent 
General  Early  with  17,000  men  through  the  Shenandoah  Val- 
ley to  threaten  Washington.     That  leader  almost  reached  the 

national  capital, 
but  Washington 
was  saved  by  troops 
sent  from  Grant's 
army.  Meantime, 
Grant  held  his  posi- 
tion before  Rich- 
mond, while  he 
ordered  General 
Sheridan  against 
the  Confederate 
forces  in  the  valley. 
After  driving  the 
enemy  southward, 
Sheridan  began  to 
lay  waste  the  valley, 
so  that  it  could  not 
again  be  used  as  a 
base  for  raids  into 
northern  territory. 
General  Sheridan 
did  his  work  thoroughly.  Barns,  mills,  and  residences  were 
burned,  and  the  grain,  cattle,  and  horses  were  seized.  The  rich 
valley  was  left  so  barren  that,  as  Sheridan  said,  "  a  crow  flying 
over  the  country  would  need  to  carry  his  rations."  General  Early 
made  a  last  stand  at  Cedar  Creek  while  Sheridan  was  absent 
at  Winchester,  twenty  miles  away.  His  famous  ride  brought 
the  Union  commander  on  the  field  in  time  to  change  the  defeat 
into  a  victory  that  ended  the  raids  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

The  Siege  and  Capture  of  Richmond.  The  first  weeks  of 
1865  saw  the  Confederacy  on  the  verge  of  collapse.  Hood's  army 


<  J 

L 

■'■  A  ■%_!! 

f'/<A 

/ 1                         0*        j 

!■ 

/ 

Philip  H.  Sheridan 

This  youthful,  impetuous  leader  proved  one  of  the 
world's  greatest  cavalry  officers.  His  troopers  fol- 
lowed him  with  blind  devotion. 


THE   WAR   IN   THE   EAST  453 

in  Tennessee  was  destroyed,  Early  was  driven  from  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley,  Grant's  army  held  Richmond  in  close  siege,  and 
Sherman  was  moving  almost  unopposed  through  the  Carolinas. 
Lee's  army  in  Richmond  numbered  only  50,000  men,  while 
Johnston  in  North  Carolina  had  only  37,000  troops,  too  small 
a  force  to  resist  Sherman's  sweep  northward. 

Lee  finally  decided  to  abandon  Richmond.     He  planned  to  es- 
cape along  the  line  of  the  railroad  to  Danville,  North  Carolina,  so 


The  Ruins  of  Richmond 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collection,  the  War  Department, 
Washington. 

as  to  unite  his  army  with  that  of  Johnston.  Lee  reached  Amelia 
Court  House,  about  thirty-five  miles  southwest  of  Richmond, 
where  he  expected  to  obtain  supplies  ;  none  were  on  hand,  and  a 
precious  day  was  lost  in  securing  them.  Next  day  a  cavalry 
force  under  Sheridan  seized  the  railroad  to  Danville,  forcing 
Lee  to  turn  in  a  westerly  direction  toward  Lynchburg.  The 
Confederate  army  was  now  broken  and  disheartened ;  the  men 
were  on  short  rations,  and  realizing  that  the  end  was  at  hand, 
they  were  deserting  in  squads.  Lee's  retreat  was  again  blocked 
by  the  Union  cavalry  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  and  here,  on 


454  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

April  9,  1865,  he  surrendered  his  army  to  General  Grant.  The 
Union  commander  granted  generous  terms  to  his  brave  op- 
ponent. All  of  the  Confederate  soldiers  were  released  on  parole  ; 
and  they  were  permitted  to  keep  their  horses  "  for  the  spring 
plowing,"  as  Grant  remarked.  The  surrender  of  the  other 
Confederate  generals  throughout  the  South  soon  followed,  and 
the  great  war  was  ended. 

The  Assassination  of  President  Lincoln,  April  14,  1865.  The 
joy  of  the  North  over  Appomattox  was  soon  turned  into  grief 
by  the  assassination  of  the  President  who  had  saved  the  Union. 
On  the  evening  of  April  14,  Lincoln  and  his  wife  were  attending 
a  play  at  Ford's  Theater.  About  ten  o'clock  John  Wilkes  Booth, 
a  half-crazed  actor  who  sympathized  with  the  South,  forced 
his  way  into  the  box  occupied  by  the  President  and  shot  him 
through  the  head.  About  the  same  time,  one  of  Booth's  fellow 
conspirators  severely  wounded  Secretary  of  State  Seward  as  he 
lay  ill  in  bed ;  and  an  attempt  was  also  made  on  the  life  of  Vice 
President  Johnson. 

Lincoln  died  early  on  the  following  morning,  and  with  his  death, 
both  North  and  South  came  to  realize  his  real  greatness.  He  had 
shown  his  common  sense  in  the  many  trying  problems  of  the  war. 
His  sympathy  and  tact  brought  him  close  to  the  plain  people ; 
and  he  met  every  difficult  situation  with  remarkable  patience  and 
good  will.  When  General  McClellan  wrote  arrogant  letters  to 
him,  Lincoln  said  :  "  I  will  hold  McClellan's  horse  for  him,  if 
only  he  will  win  victories."  He  stood  by  Grant  when  the  politi- 
cians were  urging  that  general's  removal.  "  I  can't  spare  that 
man  —  he  fights,"  was  his  quiet  but  firm  reply.  All  through  the 
war,  it  was  Lincoln's  personality  that  made  certain  the  final  out- 
come. Now  with  victory  won,  the  great  leader  was  stricken 
down  in  the  hour  of  triumph.  Perhaps  the  noblest  tribute  to  his 
life  and  work  was  that  of  James  Russell  Lowell,  in  the  Harvard 
Commemoration  Ode : 

"  Nature,  they  say,  doth  dote, 

And  cannot  make  a  man 

Save  on  some  worn  out  plan, 

Repeating  us  by  rote. 


THE    WAR   IN   THE    EAST  455 

For  him  her  Old- World  moulds  aside  she  threw, 
And,  choosing  sweet  clay  from  the  breast 
Of  the  unexhausted  West, 
With  stuff  untainted  shaped  a  hero  new, 
Wise,  steadfast  in  the  strength  of  God,  and  true. 


"  He  knew  to  bide  his  time, 

And  can  his  fame  abide, 
Still  patient  in  his  simple  faith  sublime, 

Till  the  wise  years  decide. 
Great  captains,  with  their  guns  and  drums, 

Disturb  our  judgment  for  the  hour, 

But  at  last  silence  comes  ; 
These  all  are  gone,  and,  standing  like  a  tower, 
Our  children  shall  behold  his  fame, 
The  kindly-earnest,  brave,  foreseeing  man, 
Sagacious,  patient,  dreading  praise,  not  blame, 
New  birth  of  our  new  soil,  the  first  American." 


V 


REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXVI. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  ch.  XX. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Appeal  to  Arms,  chs.  VII-XIX. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  Outcome  of  the  Civil  War,  chs.  V-VI,  X,  XVII. 
Rhodes,  J.  P.,  History  of  the   United  States,   IV,  chs.  XX- XXIII  ; 
V,  ch.  XXV. 

REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Civil  War,  pp.  120-220. 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  VIII,  pp.  121-204. 

Hitchcock,  Ripley,  (Editor,)  Decisive  Battles  of  America,  chs.  XIX- 

XX. 
Johnston,  R.  M.,  Leading  American  Soldiers,  pp.  137-362. 


*b 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 
CIVIL   AFFAIRS    DURING    THE    WAR 

The  Question  of  Slavery.  When  the  war  began,  both 
President  Lincoln  and  Congress  announced  that  their  sole  aim 
was  to  save  the  Union,  and  not  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the 
states  where  it  was  established.  President  Lincoln  always  hated 
slavery,  for  as  he  said,  "  If  slavery  is  not  wrong,  nothing  is 
wrong."  But  when  the  war  began,  the  President  wisely  held 
back  from  the  policy  of  immediate  emancipation  urged  by  Gar- 
rison, Greeley,  Beecher,  and  other  abolitionists.  The  President 
knew  that  the  support  of  the  border  states,  Missouri,  Kentucky, 
and  Maryland,  was  vital  to  the  Union  cause.  "  My  paramount 
purpose  in  this  struggle,"  said  he,  "  is  to  save  the  Union,  and  is 
not  either  to  save  or  destroy  slavery.  If  I  could  save  the  Union 
without  freeing  any  slaves,  I  would  do  it ;  and  if  I  could  save 
it  by  freeing  all  the  slaves,  I  would  do  it ;  and  if  I  could  save 
it  by  freeing  some  and  leaving  others  alone,  I  would  also 
do  that." 

Gradually  public  sentiment  at  the  North  began  to  drift  toward 
emancipation.  Northern  men  saw  that  the  slaves  were  a  source 
of  military  strength  to  the  South.  As  Lincoln  said  :  "  The  slaves 
were  working  on  the  farms  and  raising  the  food  for  the  Con- 
federate soldiers ;  they  were  serving  as  teamsters  in  the  Con- 
federate army ;  they  were  helping  to  throw  up  intrenchments 
for  the  Confederate  defense."  Fugitive  slaves  were  constantly 
seeking  refuge  within  the  Union  lines,  and  it  seemed  folly  to  send 
these  men  back  to  aid  the  enemy.  Then,  too,  it  was  thought  that 
public  opinion  abroad  would  be  more  favorable  if  the  North 
declared  in  favor  of  freedom  as  well  as  Union,  leaving  the  South 
to  fight  for  slavery  and  secession. 

456 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS  DURING  THE   WAR  457 

During  the  first  year  of  the  war,  Congress  passed  three 
measures  aimed  at  slavery.  First,  a  law  that  abolished  slavery 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  owners  being  compensated  at 
the  rate  of  $300  for  each  slave.  Second,  an  act  "  prohibiting 
slavery  in  the  present  territories  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
any  that  shall  hereafter  be  acquired."  Third,  a  measure  pro- 
viding for  the  confiscation  of  slaves  who  escaped  from  disloyal 
owners,  and  found  refuge  within  the  Union  lines. 

Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation.  After  McClellan's 
failure  to  capture  Richmond  in  the  Peninsular  Campaign, 
Lincoln  decided  that  it  was  necessary  to  strike  the  South  a  telling 
blow.  He  was  now  ready  to  use  emancipation  as  a  military 
weapon  against  the  seceding  states.  On  July  22,  1862,  the 
President  laid  before  his  Cabinet  a  proclamation  that  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  freeing  the  slaves  in  the  states  in 
rebellion.  Secretary  Seward  argued  that  the  measure  ought  not 
to  be  given  out  in  a  day  of  disaster,  so  the  President  waited  for  a 
Union  victory.  "  I  made  a  vow,"  said  Lincoln,  "  that  if  Mc- 
Clellan  drove  Lee  back  across  the  Potomac,  I  would  send  the 
proclamation  after  him."  Lee  was  driven  back  at  Antietam, 
and  a  few  days  later  the  first  emancipation  proclamation  was 
issued,  to  become  effective  January  1,  1863. 

Lincoln's  final  proclamation  was  issued  by  virtue  of  his 
power  as  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  "asa  fit  and  necessary  war  measure  for  suppressing 
the  rebellion."  The  proclamation  declared  that  all  persons  held 
as  slaves  in  the  seceding  states  were  from  that  time  on,  forever 
free ;  and  that  the  executive  department  of  the  United  States, 
together  with  the  army  and  navy,  would  recognize  and  main- 
tain their  freedom.  Elated  by  its  recent  victories,  the  South  was 
at  first  inclined  to  ridicule  this  measure,  for  it  could  not  become 
effective  except  by  a  complete  Union  triumph.  At  the  North  the 
emancipation  policy,  together  with  the  military  reverses  of  the 
year  1862,  at  first  seemed  disastrous  to  Lincoln's  administration. 
In  the  fall  elections  the  Democrats  carried  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Pennsylvania,  and  New  York,  while  the  Republican  majority 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  was  greatly  reduced.   But  time 


458  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

soon  proved  the  wisdom  of  the  President's  action.  Emancipation 
strengthened  the  Union  cause  abroad,  especially  in  England. 
Moreover,  Lincoln  began  to  enroll  negroes  in  his  armies,  and  by 
the  close  of  that  year,  100,000  colored  soldiers  were  fighting  for 
the  Union. 

Compulsory  Military  Service.  The  first  soldiers  who  enlisted 
were  volunteers,  but  when  terrible  losses  thinned  the  ranks, 
both  North  and  South  resorted  to  compulsory  military  service. 
Congress  passed  a  law  in  1863  which  ordered  a  draft  of  all  men 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years.  In  New  York 
City,  where  the  east  side  population  was  largely  foreign  born,  the 
draft  caused  one  of  the  worst  riots  in  our  history.  On  the  second 
day  of  the  draft,  the  mob  broke  up  the  drawings,  then  began  to 
loot  the  city.  The  rioters  held  New  York  in  a  reign  of  terror  for 
three  days,  killing  scores  of  negroes,  robbing  white  citizens,  and 
destroying  property  worth  $1,500,000.  Union  troops  from  the 
battle-field  of  Gettysburg  at  last  reached  the  city,  and  the  riot 
was  put  down  after  nearly  one  thousand  persons  had  been  killed 
or  wounded. 

Bounty- Jumping.  The  draft  was  accepted  as  a  military 
necessity  after  the  first  outbreaks,  but  it  continued  to  be  very 
unpopular  with  the  "  slackers,"  thousands  of  whom  failed  to 
report  when  their  names  were  drawn.  To  stimulate  enlistments, 
both  the  national  and  state  governments  offered  bounties  for 
recruits.  "  Bounty-jumping  "  soon  became  a  popular  practice; 
a  man  would  enlist,  claim  his  bounty,  then  desert  and  enlist 
elsewhere  under  another  name.  One  man  who  was  arrested  for 
doing  this  had  jumped  his  bounty  thirty-two  times.  But 
although  the  later  material  was  less  promising,  the  ranks  were 
kept  filled,  and  the  close  of  the  war  found  1,052,000  men  in  the 
Union  armies.  The  policy  of  emancipation  gained  many  recruits. 
One  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  colored  men  were  enlisted, 
and  Grant,  as  well  as  others  in  a  position  to  know,  said  that 
they  fought  well. 

Providing  the  Sinews  of  War.  To  raise  the  immense  sums  of 
money  needed  to  carry  on  the  war,  Congress  relied  chiefly  on 
taxation,  paper-money  notes,  and  bond  issues.  Only  a  small  part 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS  DURING  THE   WAR  459 

of  the  funds  needed  could  be  raised  by  taxation,  although 
Congress  taxed  almost  every  conceivable  object.  First,  the 
tariff  rates  or  duties  on  imports  were  made  much  higher.  Next 
an  excise  or  internal  revenue  tax  was  levied  on  liquors,  tobacco, 
carriages,  steamboats,  and  railroads ;  also  upon  advertisements, 
and  every  kind  of  legal  or  commercial  transaction.  An  income 
tax  was  also  levied,  the  rate  at  first  being  three  per  cent  on 
smaller  incomes,  and  five  per  cent  on  larger  ones. 

Congress  also  voted  to  issue  government  paper  notes,  or 
greenbacks,  as  they  were  called  on  account  of  their  color.  These 
notes  were  like  the  promissory  notes  of  an  individual,  except 
that  they  were  not  due  at  a  specified  date,  and  bore  no  interest. 
The  greenbacks  were  made  legal  tender  for  all  debts  except 
duties  on  imports  and  interest  on  the  public  debt.  They  were  not 
redeemable  in  coin,  and  depended  for  their  value  on  the  con- 
fidence of  the  people  in  the  triumph  of  the  Union  cause.  The 
greenbacks  were  a  kind  of  war  barometer,  for  their  value 
measured  in  gold  rose  with  each  Union  victory,  and  fell  with 
each  Union  defeat.  In  the  darkest  hour  of  the  war,  $100  in 
greenbacks  was  worth  only  $39  in  gold.  The  total  amount  of 
greenbacks  issued  was  $431,000,000. 

The  Sale  of  Bonds.  The  revenue  raised  by  taxation  and  by 
the  issue  of  greenbacks  was  small  in  comparison  with  the  im- 
mense sums  raised  by  borrowing.  More  than  one  billion  dollars 
was  raised  by  short-term  loans,  for  which  treasury  notes  and 
certificates  of  deposit  were  issued,  bearing  interest  at  from  five 
to  seven  per  cent.  Another  billion  was  raised  by  the  sale  of 
bonds,  which  bore  interest  at  five  and  six  per  cent,  and  were  due 
at  a  future  date.  These  bonds  were  sold  to  bankers  for  what 
they  would  bring,  sometimes  selling  below  par ;  and  the  bankers 
in  turn  sold  them  to  private  investors.  With  the  war  costing 
$3,000,000  a  day  toward  the  close  of  the  struggle,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  our  national  debt  increased  from  sixty  millions 
in  1860  to  nearly  three  billions  in  1865. 

A  New  System  of  National  Banks,  1863.  As  a  further  aid  to 
the  government  in  financing  the  war,  Congress  adopted  a  na- 
tional banking  sytem  much  like  our  present  plan.     The  new 


460  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

banks  were  required  to  purchase  bonds  of  the  United  States, 
and  deposit  them  with  the  Treasury  Department  at  Washington. 
In  return,  they  received  bank  notes  equal  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  the  bonds  deposited ;  and  this  money  could  then 
be  loaned  to  individuals.  The  national  banks  purchased  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  $3,331,000,000,  and  in  this  way  helped  the 
government  carry  on  the  war. 

Northern  Opposition  to  the  War.  The  Democratic  party  of 
the  North  was  divided  in  its  support  of  Lincoln's  policy.  War 
Democrats  like  Stanton  stood  loyally  by  the  President ;  others 
gave  him  only  a  lukewarm  support ;  while  a  third  class,  known 
as  copperheads,  were  downright  traitors.  The  copperheads 
denounced  the  war  as  a  failure,  and  called  Lincoln  a  despot 
who  had  overthrown  the  Constitution  and  was  trying  to  become 
a  king.  Every  Union  disaster  made  these  peace-at-any-price 
men  more  bold  and  more  talkative.  The  dark  days  that  fol- 
lowed Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville  fanned  the  spirit 
of  revolt  which  they  were  trying  to  spread. 

One  of  the  most  outspoken  opponents  of  Lincoln  and  the 
war  was  an  Ohio  copperhead  named  Vallandigham.  This 
agitator  declared  in  a  stump  speech  that  the  war  was  for  the 
liberation  of  the  blacks,  and  the  enslavement  of  the  whites ; 
and  that  people  did  not  deserve  to  be  freemen  who  would  submit 
to  the  conscription  act.  General  Burnside  finally  ordered 
Vallandigham's  arrest  for  treason,  and  a  courtmartial  sentenced 
him  to  imprisonment  during  the  war.  President  Lincoln  did  not 
wish  Vallandigham  to  pose  as  a  martyr,  so  he  changed  the  sen- 
tence to  banishment  within  the  Confederate  lines.  The  South- 
erners received  him  coldly;  they  had  no  liking  for  a  northern 
traitor,  and  Vallandigham  soon  found  his  way  back  to  Canada. 
From  this  safe  refuge  he  became  the  candidate  of  the  Democratic 
party  for  the  governorship  of  Ohio,  but  was  badly  defeated  by 
John  Brough,  a  sturdy  War  Democrat  nominated  by  the  Union 
party  (October,  1863). 

In  carrying  out  his  one  supreme  duty  to  suppress  the  rebellion, 
it  was  necessary  for  President  Lincoln  to  do  some  things  that 
would  have  been  unlawful  in  time  of  peace.     He  suppressed 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS  DURING  THE   WAR  461 

several  newspapers  which  sympathized  with  the  South,  and 
caused  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  many  persons  without 
giving  them  a  trial,  or  even  informing  them  of  the  charges 
against  them.  This  was  because  thousands  of  persons  at  the 
North  were  secretly  aiding  the  South ;  and  while  the  govern- 
ment's secret  service  agents  knew  who  these  men  were,  it  was 
difficult  to  get  the  evidence  necessary  to  convict  them  before  a 
jury.  A  loud  protest  was  raised  against  these  arbitrary  arrests, 
and  against  Lincoln  for  ordering  them ;  but  it  was  not  the  pro- 
test of  loyal  or  patriotic  men.  "  Must  I  shoot  a  simple-minded 
soldier-boy  who  deserts,"  said  Lincoln,  "  while  I  must  not 
touch  a  hair  of  the  wily  agitator  who  induces  him  to  desert? 
This  is  not  the  less  injurious  when  effected  by  getting  a  father, 
brother,  or  friend  into  a  public  meeting,  and  there  working  upon 
his  feelings  until  he  is  persuaded  to  write  the  soldier-boy  that  he 
is  fighting  in  a  bad  cause,  for  a  wicked  administration  of  a  con- 
temptible government,  too  weak  to  arrest  and  punish  him  if  he 
shall  desert.  I  think  that  in  such  a  case  to  silence  the  agitator 
and  save  the  boy  is  not  only  constitutional,  but  a  great  mercy." 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1864.  In  the  dark  days  of  1864, 
even  President  Lincoln  doubted  whether  he  could  be  reelected. 
He  had  been  renominated  by  the  Union  party,  made  up  of 
Republicans  and  War  Democrats ;  and  to  give  strength  to  the 
ticket,  the  convention  named  for  Vice  President  a  War  Demo- 
crat, Andrew  Johnson  of  Tennessee.  The  Democrats  nominated 
the  former  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  General 
George  B.  McClellan,  on  a  platform  which  declared  the  war  a 
failure.  But  just  when  the  gloom  seemed  darkest,  the  news  of 
Sherman's  capture  of  Atlanta  gave  new  hope  to  the  Union  cause. 
From  this  time  on,  Lincoln's  success  was  assured,  and  on  election 
day  the  President  carried  every  state  in  the  Union  except  three, 
receiving  212  electoral  votes  to  21  for  McClellan.  His  sweeping 
victory  showed  that  the  voters  of  the  North  were  not  ready  to 
accept  peace  at  any  price,  and  that  they  meant  to  have  the 
war  carried  to  a  successful  close. 

The  Cost  of  the  War.  The  war  cost  the  North  the  lives  of 
360,000  brave  men,  while  the  South  lost  250,000  of  her  de- 


462  THE    CIVIL   WAR 

fenders.  The  money  cost  to  the  North  was  over  three  billion 
dollars  ;  and  this  sum  does  not  take  into  account  the  loss  result- 
ing from  the  withdrawal  of  these  men  from  industry,  or  the 
immense  cost  of  pensions  paid  on  account  of  the  war.  The 
southern  people  suffered  even  more  severely  than  the  North. 
Most  of  the  fighting  was  in  their  section,  where  railroads, 
factories,  and  sometimes  even  houses  and  farm  buildings  were 
destroyed  by  the  invading  armies.  Then  too,  the  Southerners 
had  invested  their  savings  in  Confederate  bonds,  which  were 
now  worthless ;  and  the  freeing  of  their  slaves  meant  a  loss  to 
the  planters  of  at  least  three  billion  dollars. 

Results  of  the  War.  Many  good  and  lasting  results  were  to 
come  from  all  this  suffering  and  sacrifice  : 

(1)  The  Union  was  saved,  and  the  doctrine  of  secession  was 
overthrown  for  all  time.  From  this  time  on,  every  one  knew  that 
our  government  is  not  a  compact,  but  a  permanent  and  in- 
divisible union. 

(2)  Slavery  was  forever  destroyed,  thus  taking  away  the 
cause  of  the  forty-year  dispute  between  the  North  and  the 
South.  Lincoln's  emancipation  proclamation  set  free  the  slaves 
in  the  seceding  states  as  rapidly  as  the  Union  armies  conquered 
those  states.  It  did  not  affect  slavery  in  the  loyal  border  states, 
like  Kentucky  and  Delaware,  nor  did  it  abolish  the  institution 
of  slavery,  even  at  the  South.  After  the  war  some  of  the  border 
states,  like  Maryland  and  Missouri,  abolished  slavery  by  state 
action.  Finally,  in  1865  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the 
federal  Constitution  was  adopted,  forever  abolishing  slavery 
throughout  the  United  States  and  all  places  subject  to  its  juris- 
diction. 

(3)  Citizenship  for  the  negro  race  was  another  result  of  the 
war.  This  was  conferred  by  the  Fourteenth  Amendment, 
adopted  in  1868. 

(4)  The  war  showed  the  strength  of  Republican  institutions. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  struggle,  many  persons  doubted  whether 
a  government  like  our  own,  under  the  control  of  the  people, 
would  have  power  to  maintain  itself  during  the  stress  of  a  great 
war.    But  it  was  soon  proven  that  the  people  could  be  trusted 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS   DURING   THE   WAR  463 

to  defend  a  government  of  which  they  formed  a  part.  It  was 
found,  too,  that  the  President's  war  powers  were  as  broad  as  the 
crisis  demanded.  No  monarch  in  the  world  has  greater  powers 
than  were  exercised  by  President  Lincoln  in  carrying  on  the  war. 
(5)  Finally,  as  a  result  of  the  passions  raised  by  the  war, 
the  southern  states  were  compelled  to  pass  through  the  years 
of  humiliation  known  as  the  reconstruction  period,  before  being 
restored  to  their  rights  and  privileges  as  members  of  the  Union. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  HMory  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXVII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs.  XIII- 
XVII,  XXI. 

Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Appeal  to  Arms,  ch.  XX. 

Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Outcome  of  the  Civil  War,  chs.  I,  IV,  VIII-IX,  XIII- 
XIV. 

McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation, 
chs.  XLV-XLVII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :    Emancipation  Proclamation,  pp.  457-459. 

Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation  (Riverside  Series),  ch.  I. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  IV,  chs.  XVII- XIX  ; 
V,  chs.  XXVI- XXIX. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Foreign  Affairs  during  the  Civil  War.     Foster,  John  W.,  A 
Century  of  American  Diplomacy,  ch.  X. 

2.  Finances  of  the  Civil  War.     Dewey,  W.  R.,  Financial  History 
of  the  United  States,  chs.  XII- XV. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  pp.  44-54,  205-207. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  Division  and  Reunion,  pp.  232-237,  239-252. 


464 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 
RESTORING   THE   BROKEN   UNION 

Lincoln's  Policy  of  Reconstruction.  In  the  death  of  Lincoln 
the  South  had"  lost  her  best  friend  in  the  hour  of  her  greatest 
need.  He  alone  possessed  the  wisdom,  the  patience,  the  tact, 
and  the  inspiring  leadership  necessary  to  restore  the  broken 
Union.  Had  Lincoln  lived,  he  might  have  been  able  to  bring  the 
seceding  states  back  into  the  Union  on  terms  fair  to  the  North 
and  generous  to  the  South.  The  martyred  President  was  not 
in  favor  of  dealing  harshly  with  the  defeated  South.  "  I  hope/' 
he  said  at  his  last  Cabinet  meeting,  "there  will  be  no  persecution, 
no  bloody  work  after  this  war  is  over.  No  one  need  expect  me 
to  take  any  part  in  hanging  or  killing  those  men,  even  the  worst 
of  them.  Enough  lives  have  been  sacrificed.  We  must  extinguish 
our  resentments  if  we  expect  harmony  and  union."  Lincoln 
only  asked  that  the  Southerners  do  three  things  :  first,  recognize 
the  authority  of  the  national  government ;  second,  agree  that 
slavery  should  be  forever  prohibited ;  third,  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  federal  constitution.  If  at  least  one  tenth  of 
the  voters  in  any  southern  state  would  do  this,  they  might  elect 
a  convention  and  form  a  new  state  government,  which  the 
President  agreed  to  recognize. 

The  terrible  deed  of  an  assassin  prevented  Lincoln  from  carry- 
ing out  this  broad  and  sensible  policy.  His  successor  was  Andrew 
Johnson,  who  had  been  nominated  as  Vice  President  in  1864  in 
recognition  of  his  services  as  one  of  the  staunch  Union  men  of 
eastern  Tennessee.  As  President,  Johnson  proved  to  be  a 
narrow-minded  man,  bent  on  having  his  own  way  and  intolerant 
of  the  wishes  of  Congress.  He  made  a  complete  failure  of  his 
attempt  to  carry  out  Lincoln's  plan  of  reconstruction.    Con- 

465 


466      THE   UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

gress  had  no  confidence  in  the  new  President,  and  after  a  bitter 
quarrel,  proceeded  to  carry  out  its  own  program. 

Johnson's  Plan  and  Its  Failure.  During  the  summer  of  1865, 
while  Congress  was  not  in  session,  President  Johnson  tried  to 
carry  out  his  reconstruction  policy.  He  laid  down  three  condi- 
tions on  which  the  states  that  had  seceded  might  be  restored 
to  the  Union.  They  must  repeal  their  secession  ordinances, 
repudiate  the  debts  created  during  the  war,  and  ratify  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment  abolishing  slavery.  The  Southerners 
promptly  complied  with  these  terms.  They  elected  state  legis- 
latures and  governors ;  and  when  Congress  assembled  in  De- 
cember, 1865,  Senators  and  Representatives  were  present  from 
the  southern  states,  ready  to  take  their  seats. 

To  complete  the  restoration,  it  was  only  necessary  for 
Congress  to  consent  to  the  admission  of  these  members.  This 
consent  Congress  would  not  give  until  the  southern  states  should 
pass  laws  to  protect  the  ex-slaves  in  their  newly-won  freedom. 
President  Johnson  insisted  that  the  South  should  be  let  alone  in 
dealing  with  the  freedmen,  and  on  this  point  the  President  and 
Congress  parted  ways.  The  members  of  Congress  also  resented 
the  fact  that  President  Johnson  had  taken  up  the  reconstruction 
problem  without  consulting  them.  Then  too,  the  Republican 
leaders  did  not  like  the  idea  of  at  once  admitting  to  Congress 
the  ex-Confederate  soldiers  and  generals  who  had  been  elected 
to  represent  the  South.  They  feared  that  the  late  Confederates, 
aided  by  northern  Democrats,  might  gain  control  of  the  govern- 
ment and  undo  the  results  of  the  war.  "  The  party  which  saved 
the  country  must  rule  it,"  said  the  Republican  orators. 

The  Black  Codes.  Many  Republican  Congressmen  believed 
that  the  South  was  not  accepting  in  good  faith  the  results  of 
the  war.  They  pointed  to  the  harsh  laws  which  the  new  south- 
ern legislatures  had  passed,  which  seemed  to  restore  slavery  in 
all  but  name.  For  example,  there  were  vagrancy  laws,  im- 
posing a  fine  upon  negroes  who  wandered  about  instead  of 
working.  White  men  might  pay  these  fines,  then  compel  the 
negro  to  work  out  the  debt.  Then  there  were  apprentice  laws, 
by  which  young  negroes  were  bound  out  and  compelled  to 


RESTORING   THE   BROKEN   UNION  467 

work  without  any  wages  except  their  board  and  clothes.  In 
several  states  of  the  South,  negroes  were  forbidden  to  leave 
the  county,  or  to  own  land,  or  to  assemble  in  political  meetings. 

The  southern  whites  defended  these  measures  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  necessary  to  protect  their  section  from  disorder 
and  violence.  Four  million  blacks,  nearly  all  of  whom  could 
neither  read  nor  write,  had  suddenly  become  free.  They  were 
utterly  destitute,  yet  many  of  them  refused  to  work  and 
wandered  about  in  idleness,  testing  their  newly-won  freedom. 
The  more  radical  members  of  Congress  talked  of  confiscating 
the  estates  of  the  ex-Confederate  leaders ;  so  it  was  not  strange 
that  thousands  of  ignorant  negroes  came  to  believe  that  the 
plantations  of  their  former  masters  were  to  be  divided  among 
them  by  the  United  States  government,  and  that  some  time 
between  Christmas  and  New  Year's  Day,  1866,  every  negro 
was  to  receive  "  forty  acres  and  a  mule.'' 

The  Freedmen's  Bureau  and  the  Civil  Rights  Act.  Instead 
of  admitting  the  southern  representatives,  Congress  appointed 
a  committee  of  fifteen  members  to  investigate  conditions  in  the 
seceding  states,  and  recommend  the  terms  on  which  they  should 
be  restored  to  the  Union.  Meantime,  Congress  passed  two 
important  measures  intended  to  aid  and  protect  the  negroes. 
One  of  these  continued  and  enlarged  the  Freedmen's  Bureau, 
which  had  been  established  in  1865  under  the  control  of  the 
Department  of  War.  This  Bureau  was  to  undertake  a  general 
guardianship  over  the  ignorant  and  helpless  freedmen  of  the 
South.  It  was  to  aid  them  in  finding  work,  help  them  get  a  start 
at  farming,  and  protect  them  from  wrongs  and  oppression. 
Congress  also  passed  the  Civil  Rights  Act,  which  declared  the 
freedmen  to  be  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  guaranteed 
to  them  the  civil  rights  of  white  citizens.  That  is,  negroes  were 
to  have  the  right  to  make  contracts,  to  purchase  and  sell  lands, 
and  to  move  about  freely.  They  were  not  given  the  right  to 
vote,  but  in  other  respects  were  to  have  the  full  benefit  and 
protection  of  the  laws,  the  same  as  white  citizens. 

Both  of  these  measures  were  vetoed  by  President  Johnson, 
but  Congress  passed  them  over  his  veto  by  the  necessary  two- 


468      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

thirds  vote.  The  breach  between  Congress  and  the  President  was 
now  complete.  To  make  matters  worse,  Johnson  declared  in  a 
public  speech  that  Congress  was  really  not  a  Congress  at  all, 
since  eleven  states  were  excluded  from  representation.  He 
attacked  three  of  the  Congressional  leaders  by  name  —  Sumner, 
Stevens,  and  Wendell  Phillips  —  and  said  that  they  were  trying 
to  destroy  constitutional  government. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment.  One  Congress  had  passed  the 
Civil  Rights  Act,  but  another  might  repeal  it.  To  prevent  this, 
Congress  passed  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  national 
Constitution,  which  was  ratified  by  three  fourths  of  the  states  in 
1868.  This  amendment  was  similar  to  the  Civil  Rights  Act.  It 
conferred  citizenship  on  all  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  guaranteed  the  civil  rights  of  every  citizen,  and 
provided  that  representation  in  Congress  should  be  based  on  the 
number  of  voters  in  each  state.  Southerners  who  had  held 
O  political  office  before  the  war  and  had  afterwards  "  engaged  in 
insurrection  or  rebellion,"  were  disqualified  from  holding  any 
office,  state  or  national.  This  amendment  also  made  it  unlawful 
for  the  United  States  or  any  state  to  pay  any  debt  incurred  in  aid 
of  the  rebellion ;  and  it  guaranteed  the  payment  of  the  public 
debt  of  the  United  States,  including  that  contracted  during  the 
Civil  War. 

The  Congressional  Plan  of  Reconstruction.  Acting  on 
President  Johnson's  advice,  all  of  the  seceding  states  except 
Tennessee  rejected  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  Accordingly, 
Congress  restored  Tennessee  to  the  Union,  but  organized  the 
remaining  ten  states  into  five  military  districts,  each  ruled  by  a 
major-general  of  the  United  States  Army.  It  would  have  been 
better  for  the  southern  states  if  they  had  followed  the  wise 
counsel  of  ex-Governor  Brown  of  Georgia :  "  Agree  with  thine 
adversary  quickly."  For  by  March,  1867,  Congress  had  com- 
pleted its  plan  of  reconstruction.  To  be  restored  to  the  Union, 
each  seceding  state  had  to  agree  to  these  harsh  conditions  : 

(1)  It  must  elect  delegates  to  a  constitutional  convention, 
permitting  negroes  to  vote,  together  with  those  few  white  men 
who  could  take  the  ironclad  oath  that  they  had  not  borne  arms 


RESTORING   THE   BROKEN   UNION  469 

against  the  United  States,  or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  its 
enemies. 

(2)  The  constitution  drawn  up  by  this  convention  must  give 
negroes  the  right  to  vote  on  the  same  terms  as  white  men. 

(3)  If  adopted  by  the  voters,  this  constitution  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  Congress  for  approval. 

(4)  The  constitution  must  repudiate  the  Confederate  debt. 

(5)  The  legislature  chosen  under  this  constitution  must  ratify 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 

The  Triumph  of  the  Congressional  Plan.  To  the  South,  the 
hateful  feature  of  this  plan  was  the  negro  ballot.  The  Recon- 
struction Act  denied  the  ex-Confederates  the  right  to  vote, 
while  giving  the  ballot  to  the  illiterate  negro.  In  other  words,  it 
enthroned  ignorance  at  the  South.  The  negroes  outnumbered 
the  white  voters  in  several  states,  and  their  governments  now 
fell  into  the  hands  of  unscrupulous  white  adventurers  known  as 
"  carpet-baggers  "  and  "  scalawags."  The  carpet-baggers  were 
northern  white  men  who  had  gone  south  to  seek  their  fortunes, 
and  were  said  to  have  packed  all  their  belongings  in  carpet-bags  ; 
while  the  scalawags  were  southern  men  of  no  standing  or 
character  who  were  eager  to  share  in  the  spoils  of  office  holding. 
These  new  rulers  of  the  South  posed  as  the  friends  of  the  negroes, 
controlled  their  votes,  and  plundered  the  state  treasuries  almost 
at  will.  One  by  one,  the  southern  states  accepted  the  harsh 
terms  imposed  by  Congress.  Eight  of  the  seceding  states  were 
readmitted  by  1868,  and  three  years  later  found  Virginia, 
Mississippi,  and  Texas  again  back  in  the  Union.  For  all  time, 
it  was  settled  that  ours  is  "  an  indestructible  Union  of  in- 
destructible states." 

President  Johnson  Impeached  and  Acquitted.  Aroused  over 
President  Johnson's  opposition  to  its  reconstruction  policy, 
Congress  in  1867  passed  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  which  forbade 
the  President  to  remove  federal  officers  without  the  consent  of 
the  Senate.  Even  Cabinet  officers  could  not  be  removed  during 
the  presidential  term  for  which  they  were  appointed.  Johnson 
regarded  this  law  as  an  outrage,  since  it  took  from  the  President 
a  power  exercised  by  that  officer  since  the  foundation  of  our 


(j  /    C  -    ■  *  /i 

470      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

government.  He  finally  defied  Congress  by  removing  his  Sec- 
retary of  War,  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  who  was  supporting  Con- 
gress in  its  reconstruction  policy.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives promptly  voted  to  impeach  the  President  for  disobeying 
the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  and  for  other  "  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors." President  Johnson  had  not  really  committed  any 
crime,  or  even  a  less  offense  which  might  warrant  his  impeach- 
ment. But  he  had  used 
abusive  and  intemperate 
language  in  speaking  of  Con- 
gress, and  his  aggressive 
attitude  now  led  to  an  at- 
tempt by  the  more  radical 
Republican  members  to  re- 
move him  from  office. 

The  trial  of  President 
Johnson  took  place  before 
the  Senate  organized  as  a 
court  of  impeachment,  with 
Chief  Justice  Chase  as  pre- 
siding officer.  Our  Consti- 
tution requires  a  two-thirds 
vote  for  conviction  in  such 
cases ;  and  when  the  trial 
drew  to  a  close,  the  Presi- 
dent was  acquitted  by  the  narrow  margin  of  one  vote.  Thirty- 
five  Senators  voted  "  guilty, "  and  nineteen  "  not  guilty."  Had 
the  vote  been  thirty-six  to  eighteen,  he  would  have  been  con- 
victed. So  Johnson  served  out  the  remaining  nine  months  of 
his  stormy  term,  and  the  country  was  spared  the  disgrace  of 
having  its  President  removed  from  office  because  of  a  party 
quarrel. 

The  Carpet-Bag  Governments  and  Negro  Rule.  The  close  of 
the  Civil  War  found  the  South  almost  ruined.  The  opposing 
armies  had  destroyed  an  immense  amount  of  property,  while 
the  planters  suffered  enormous  losses  from  the  freeing  of  their 
slaves.   The  southern  people  had  invested  millions  of  dollars  in 


Andrew  Johnson 


- 

RESTORING   THE   BROKEN    UNION  471 

Confederate  bonds,  and  their  soldiers  were  paid  in  paper  money, 
all  of  which  was  now  worthless.  But  a  still  greater  hardship  was 
in  store  for  the  impoverished  and  defeated  South.  The  new 
"  carpet-bag  "  governments,  supported  by  federal  troops,  began 
a  rule  of  plunder  and  corruption  which  made  the  reconstruction 
period  more  unbearable  than  the  war  itself. 

The  experience  of  South  Carolina  was  typical  of  what  was 
going  on  all  over  the  South.  The  legislature  of  that  state  dur- 
ing the  years  1868-1872  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-five 
members,  two  thirds  of  whom  were  negroes.  Only  twenty-two 
of  the  members  could  read  and  write ;  thirty  members  together 
paid  $83  in  taxes,  while  ninety-one  members  paid  no  taxes 
whatever.  These  patriots  openly  announced  that  they  intended 
"  to  squeeze  the  state  as  dry  as  a  sucked  orange  "  ;  and  one  of  the 
colored  members  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "  South  Carolina 
ought  not  to  be  a  state  unless  she  can  support  her  statesmen." 
The  statesmen  promptly  voted  themselves  large  salaries,  let 
contracts  at  enormous  profits,  and  divided  the  proceeds  with 
corrupt  contractors.  Millions  of  dollars  were  wasted  and  millions 
were  stolen,  while  the  taxpayers  had  to  pay  the  bills.  In  a  single 
year,  the  legislature  spent  $200,000  in  equipping  the  capitol 
building  with  costly  armchairs,  lounges,  and  other  furniture, 
including  a  free  bar  for  the  use  of  the  members.  When  the  term 
of  this  infamous  body  came  to  a  close,  South  Carolina's  debt 
had  been  increased  by  twenty-five  million  dollars. 

Conditions  were  almost  as  bad  in  the  other  southern  states, 
several  of  which  became  bankrupt  as  the  rule  of  plunder  con- 
tinued. In  some  cases  it  was  impossible  to  discover  the  amount 
of  the  state  debt,  because  no  record  was  kept  of  the  bond  issues. 
It  was  estimated  in  1872  that  the  carpet-bag  governments  in  the 
eleven  reconstructed  states  had  increased  the  state  debts  by  at 
least  $131,000,000. 

The  Ku  Klux  Klan.  Denied  the  ballot,  southern  white  men 
had  no  legal  means  of  checking  this  corruption  ;  so  they  organized 
a  secret  society  known  as  the  Ku  Klux  Klan,  or  Invisible  Empire. 
The  object  of  this  society  was  to  secure  white  rule  at  the  South  ; 
to  accomplish  this,  it  was  determined  to  intimidate  the  negroes, 


472  -  THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

and  drive  out  the  carpet-baggers  and  scalawags.  Members  of 
the  Klan  rode  about  at  night,  both  horses  and  riders  covered 
with  white  sheets,  each  horse  with  muffled  hoofs  so  that  it  walked 
noiselessly  over  the  ground.  To  the  superstitious  negroes,  these 
midnight  visitors  seemed  to  be  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  Con- 
federates, returning  to  rebuke  their  former  slaves.  Drawing  up 
before  the  hut  of  some  negro  politician,  the  horseman,  who 
carried  a  tank  concealed  beneath  his  long  white  robes,  would 
demand  a  drink  of  water,  then  drink  three  or  four  bucketfuls 
with  the  remark  :  "  That's  good  ;  the  first  I've  had  since  Shiloh." 
Another  would  ask  some  frightened  negro  to  hold  his  horse,  then 
taking  off  what  appeared  to  be  his  head,  would  ask  him  to  hold 
that  also.  The  carpet-baggers  and  scalawags  could  not  be 
frightened  so  easily  as  the  superstitious  blacks ;  but  grotesque 
notices  were  posted  at  night  on  trees  or  fences,  warning  them  to 
leave  the  country.  If  they  failed  to  heed  the  warning,  the 
terrible  Ku  Klux  riders  would  pay  them  a  midnight  visit,  and 
perhaps  flog  them  to  death. 

All  over  the  South  the  negroes  were  becoming  terrorized, 
while  the  carpet-baggers  appealed  to  the  federal  government 
for  protection.  Congress  replied  by  passing  the  severe  "  Force 
Acts  "  of  1871,  which  finally  broke  up  the  Ku  Klux  organization. 
But  it  was  evident  that  the  southern  whites  would  no  longer  tol- 
erate the  rule  of  the  corrupt  and  ignorant  men  who  were  plunder- 
ing their  section ;  and  at  last  Congress  passed  a  law  which 
permitted  southern  white  men  to  vote,  even  though  they  had 
supported  the  Confederacy.  The  natural  leaders  of  the  South 
then  regained  control  of  the  government,  and  the  dark  days  of 
reconstruction  came  to  an  end.  The  South  frankly  accepted 
her  defeat  in  the  war,  but  she  has  never  forgotten  the  evil  days 
of  her  carpet-bag  governments.  Not  Appomattox,  but  the 
humiliation  suffered  during  her  reconstruction,  created  a  bitter- 
ness toward  the  North  which  only  the  lapse  of  half  a  century 
could  efface. 

The  Fifteenth  Amendment.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment 
gave  the  negro  freedom,  the  Fourteenth  made  him  a  citizen ; 
one  more  amendment  was  necessary  to  make  him  a  voter.     In 


RESTORING   THE   BROKEN   UNION  473 

the  opinion  of  Congress,  the  black  man's  freedom  and  his  rights 
as  a  citizen  could  be  protected  only  by  giving  him  the  ballot. 
So  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  was  adopted  in  1870,  forbidding 
any  state  to  deprive  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  of  the  right 
to  vote  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude.  Before  this  time,  a  few  northern  states  permitted 
the  negro  to  vote,  and  the  reconstructed  southern  states  had 
been  compelled  to  give  him  this  privilege.  The  Fifteenth  il 
Amendment  was  an  attempt  to  compel  every  state  to  grant 
the  ballot  to  its  colored  citizens. 

Grant  Twice  Chosen  President.  After  Vicksburg,  General 
Grant  became  a  presidential  possibility;  while  after  Appomattox 
his  popularity  at  the  North  was  universal.  In  the  last  year 
of  Johnson's  administration,  the  Republican  convention  by 
unanimous  vote  named  Grant  for  President  (1868).  That  he 
was  no  politician  increased  Grant's  popularity  with  the  masses. 
The  words  of  his  letter  of  acceptance,  "  Let  us  have  peace," 
echoed  the  wish  of  a  people  weary  of  political  wrangling.  The 
Republican  platform  approved  the  reconstruction  policy  of 
Congress,  and  favored  negro  suffrage.  The  Democrats  nom- 
inated Governor  Seymour  of  New  York,  and  denounced  the 
reconstruction  acts  as  "  unconstitutional,  revolutionary,  and 
void." 

The  election  resulted  in  a  sweeping  victory  for  Grant  and 
the  Republican  party.  A  superb  soldier,  Grant's  record  as 
President  fell  far  short  of  his  achievements  in  the  field.  President 
Grant  himself  was  incapable  of  dishonesty  or  double-dealing, 
but  he  placed  too  much  trust  in  his  political  friends  and  advisers.     t> 

Corruption  and  graft  marred  his  administration ;  but  in  spite     

of  his  political  mistakes,  the  hero  of  Appomattox  was  trium- 
phantly reelected  in  1872. 

Corruption  in  Public  Life.  In  the  North  as  at  the  South,  the 
unsettled  conditions  following  the  war  furnished  many  op- 
portunities for  graft  and  dishonesty  in  public  affairs.  A  notorious 
politicaljeader,  "  Boss  Tweed,"  defrauded  the  treasury  of  New 
York  City  out  of  $150,000,000  before  he  ended  his  career  in  jail. 
The  New  York  Times  and  Thomas  Nast  in  Harper's  Weekly 


WHO     \P    I|\Qtl\SOLLp    y^^f NY.TRieuNf.  >^l•»(ct^soll..>l.cw/le■ro/wl^6>ycrrov70/«^(^, 


TWO  GREAT  gVgjTTJOMg!         Sp. 


**<««$ 


"WHO  STOt.ETHEpEOPLr5MONVy?>-00  TfLL.ny.T.MCS.  'TWAS    HIM/ 

Copyright  by  Harper  and  Brothers.    From  A.  B.  Paine' s,    "  Th.  Nast." 

J.  H.  Ingersoll  and  Company,  Contractors,  were  really  Tweed  and  Company 
by  which  firm  the  Ring  swindled  the  people. 

"In  the  upper  picture  Greeley  appears,  asking  'Who  is  Ingersoll's  Company?' 
and  Tweed  and  his  numberless  cohorts  are  there  as  a  reply.  In  the  lower  picture 
the  Ring  and  its  friends  are  formed  in  a  circle,  pointing  accusingly,  one  to  the 
other  .  .  .  ." 


474 


RESTORING   THE    BROKEN   UNION  475 

were  the  forces  that  brought  about  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
Tweed  Ring.  One  of  Tweed's  fellow  robbers  offered  a  bribe  of 
five  million  dollars  to  George  Jones,  owner  of  the  Times,  if  he 
would  silence  his  paper.  "  I  don't  think,"  replied  Jones,  "  the 
devil  will  ever  make  a  higher  bid  for  me  than  that."  Thomas 
Nast  supplemented  the  work  of  the  Times  by  effective  cartoons 
in  Harper's  Weekly,  one  of  which  pictured  Tweed  in  the  prison 
stripes  which  he  so  well  deserved.  "  Let's  stop  those  pictures," 
exclaimed  Tweed,  on  seeing  this  cartoon.  "I  don't  care  so 
much  what  the  papers  write  about  me  —  my  constituents  can't 
read ;  but  they  can  see  pictures."  Nast  refused  the  bribe  of 
$500,000  offered  to  him  if  he  would  stop  his  caricatures  and  go 
to  Europe. 

At  Washington,  corruption  reached  even  the  highest  offices 
in  the  government.  Secretary  of  War  Belknap  resigned  his 
office  to  escape  impeachment  for  bribery.  The  President's 
private  secretary  was  a  party  to  frauds  which  cheated  the 
government  out  of  the  internal  revenue  tax  on  whisky.  Mem- 
bers of  Congress  accepted  presents  of  stock  from  the  Credit 
Mobilier,  a  corporation  engaged  in  building  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad.  This  corruption  might  have  gone  unrebuked,  but 
Congress  finally  passed  an  act  which  roused  a  storm  of  protest. 
This  was  the  "  Salary  Grab,"  a  law  increasing  the  salary  of 
Congressmen  from  $5000  to  $7500,  and  that  of  the  President 
from  $25,000  to  $50,000.  There  was  nothing  dishonest  about 
the  law  itself,  but  the  increased  pay  was  made  to  date  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Congressional  term.  The  "  back-pay 
steal  "  caused  the  defeat  of  many  Congressmen  at  the  next 
election,  and  the  new  Congress  promptly  restored  the  former 
congressional  salary. 

Political  Reaction  —  The  Liberal  Republicans.  The  result 
of  these  conditions  was  a  reform  movement  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Republican  party.  The  Liberal  Republicans,  as  they  were 
called,  demanded  :  (1)  a  more  liberal  policy  toward  the  South  ; 
(2)  civil  service  reform,  that  is,  appointments  to  office  on  the 
basis  of  merit,  rather  than  political  "  pull  "  ;  (3)  a  reduction  of 
tariff  duties ;  (4)  the  stamping  out  of  corruption  and  dishonesty 


-4 


ru 


476      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

in  public  affairs.  In  1872  they  chose  for  their  presidential 
candidate  Horace  Greeley,  the  veteran  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune;  and  the  Democratic  party  also  accepted  Greeley  as  its 
candidate. 

As  editor,  Greeley  had  criticized  the  Democratic  party  and 
its  policies  most  severely  ;  so  that  thousands  of  Democrats  now 
refused  to  support  him  as  their  presidential  candidate.  The 
campaign  was  one  of  bitter  personalities.  Greeley  conducted 
his  own  campaign  fairly,  but  Thomas  Nast  caricatured  him  by 
turns  as  a  scarecrow,  a  despot,  and  an  imbecile.  Grant's 
military  record  had  endeared  him  to  the  people,  and  they  cared 
little  about  his  mistakes  as  President.  The  campaign  resulted 
in  a  sweeping  victory  for  Grant  and  the  regular  Republicans, 
who  carried  every  northern  state. 

In  spite  of  this  reverse,  the  Democrats,  aided  by  Liberal 
Republicans,  won  a  decisive  victory  in  the  Congressional 
election  of  1874.  For  the  first  time  since  1860,  the  Democrats 
found  themselves  in  control  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
their  prospects  seemed  bright  for  victory  in  the  next  presidential 
election. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1876.  For  their  presidential 
candidate  in  1876,  the  Democrats  turned  to  Samuel  J.  Tilden, 
the  New  York  governor  whose  fearless  energy  had  resulted  in 
the  conviction  of  "  Boss  "  Tweed.  The  Republicans  nominated 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  three  times  elected  governor  of  Ohio. 
The  contest  was  close  and  exciting.  At  midnight  on  election 
day,  the  crowds  went  home  thinking  that  Tilden  was  elected. 
Next  morning  it  appeared  that  the  result  was  in  doubt,  the 
Republicans  claiming  the  election  of  Hayes.  The  dispute  was 
chiefly  over  the  returns  from  three  southern  states  —  South 
Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana.  These  states  were  still  under 
carpet-bag  governments  ;  in  them  each  party  claimed  the  victory, 
and  charged  the  other  with  fraud.  Were  the  nineteen  electoral 
votes  from  these  states  to  be  counted  for  Hayes  or  for  Tilden? 
It  was  a  weighty  question.  Tilden  had  184  uncontested  votes ; 
one  of  the  nineteen  votes  in  dispute,  if  counted  for  him,  would 
make  him  President. 


RESTORING   THE   BROKEN   UNION 


477 


The  Electoral  Commission.  Our  Constitution  simply  pro- 
vides that  the  electoral  votes  shall  be  opened  in  the  presence 
of  both  houses,  and  shall  then  be  counted.  It  makes  no  pro- 
vision for  settling  the  dispute  in  case  any  state  sends  in  two  sets 
of  electoral  votes.  Plainly,  the  Republican  Senate  and  the 
Democratic  House  would  never  agree  as  to  which  set  of  votes 
should  be  received.  After 
a  long  discussion,  Congress 
decided  that  the  votes 
should  be  counted  by  an 
Electoral  Commission.  This 
body  was  to  consist  of  five 
Senators,  five  Representa- 
tives, and  five  Justices  of 
the  Supreme  Court.  Eight 
of  the  members  appointed 
were  Republicans  and  seven 
were  Democrats.  The  Com- 
mission decided  each  con- 
test by  a  party  vote  of  eight 
to  seven,  in  favor  of  the  Re- 
publicans. Hayes  was  then 
declared  President  by  an 
electoral  vote  of  185  to  184. 

The  decision  was  a  bitter  disappointment  to  the  Democrats, 
who  had  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote.  Their  candidate  set 
an  example  of  true  patriotism  by  quietly  accepting  the  decision 
against  him,  and  Hayes  was  peacefully  inaugurated  on  March  4, 
1877.  To  avoid  the  danger  of  a  similar  dispute,  Congress  in 
1887  passed  a  law  regulating  the  method  of  counting  electoral 
votes.  Each  state  is  to  decide  for  itself  how  any  election  contest 
is  to  be  settled,  and  the  decision  by  the  state  is  generally  final. 

The  End  of  Reconstruction.  Soon  after  his  inauguration, 
President  Hayes  withdrew  the  federal  troops  from  Louisiana 
and  South  Carolina.  At  once  the  carpet-bag  governments  in 
those  states  collapsed,  the  southern  whites  again  took  control 
of  their  own  affairs,  and  reconstruction  came  to  an  end.     The 


Rutherford  B.  Hayes 


478      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

radical  Republican  leaders  were  indignant  at  the  President's 
action ;  but  Hayes  was  a  man  of  high  moral  courage,  who  did 
not  hesitate  to  do  his  duty  as  he  saw  it,  even  though  it  meant 
a  breach  with  the  politicians.  The  President  appointed  a 
Southerner  as  his  Postmaster-General,  made  a  tour  of  the  South, 
and  did  much  to  lessen  the  bitterness  resulting  from  the  war 
and  reconstruction. 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  chs.  I-VI, 
VIII. 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XXVIII- 
XXXI. 

Dunning,  W.  A.,  Reconstruction,  Political  and  Economic  (American 
Nation  Series),  chs.  I-III,  VIII-IX. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs. 
XXIII-XXV. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :   Articles  of  Impeachment,  pp.  518-529. 

Morse,  E.  W.,  Causes  and  Effects  in  American  History,  ch.  XVII. 

Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  ch.  III. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States,  V,  ch.  XXX  ;  VI,  chs. 
XXXI-XXXIV,  XXXIX. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Corruption  in  Political  Life.  Dunning,  W.  A.,  Reconstruction, 
Political  and  Economic,  chs.  XII- XIII,  XVII  ;  Paxson,  F.  L.,  A 
New  Nation,  ch.  VI  ;  Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States, 
VII,  ch.  XL  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems, 
ch.  XVII. 

2.  The  Disputed  Election.  Dunning,  W.  A.,  Reconstruction, 
Political  and  Economic,  chs.  XIX-XX  ;  Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History 
of  the  United  States,  VII,  ch.  XLIV. 

3.  Reconstruction  in  the  South.  Dunning,  W.  A.,  Reconstruction, 
Political  and  Economic,  chs.  III-VII  ;  McLaughlin,  A.  C.,  Readings 
in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  chs.  L-LIV  ;  Rhodes,  J.  F., 
History  of  the  United  States,  VII,  chs.  XLI-XLII. 


RESTORING  THE   BROKEN  UNION  479 

REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United  People  (Century  Readings), 

pp.  7-8. 
Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  pp.  3-69,  188-195. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  Division  and  Reunion,  pp.  254-287. 
Wright,  H.  C,  American  Progress,  ch.  XVIII. 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   PUPILS 

1.  The  Ku  Klux  Klan.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United 
People,  pp.  16-25. 

2.  Rings  and  Bosses.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United 
People,  pp.  29-32  ;  Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IX,  pp.  152- 
157. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
THIRTY   YEARS   OF   FOREIGN   AFFAIRS,    1865-1895 

The  United  States  and  Europe.  The  triumph  of  the  Union 
cause  in  the  Civil  War  brought  about  a  change  in  the  attitude  of 
European  powers  toward  the  United  States.  The  nation  which 
had  successfully  waged  one  of  the  greatest  wars  of  modern  times 
was  treated  with  increased  respect.  The  European  govern- 
ments that  had  been  inclined  to  favor  the  Confederacy  found, 
as  Lord  Salisbury  said,  that  they  "had  been  backing  the  wrong 
horse,"  and  became  anxious  to  cultivate  the  favor  of  the  winner. 
The  close  of  civil  strife  left  the  United  States  free  to  take  a  firm 
stand  upon  several  important  issues  which  had  to  be  postponed 
while  the  Union  was  fighting  for  its  existence. 

The  French  in  Mexico,  1861-1867.  As  a  result  of  Mexico's 
refusal  to  pay  her  debts,  France,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain  sent 
over  an  armed  force  in  1861  to  occupy  her  seaports.  Great 
Britain  and  Spain  soon  withdrew  their  troops,  leaving  France 
to  act  alone.  Napoleon  III,  the  ruler  of  France,  was  planning 
to  make  himself  more  popular  at  home  by  establishing  a  French 
empire  in  Mexico.  The  Mexican  Republic  was  torn  by  one  of 
its  chronic  revolutions,  and  Napoleon  believed  that  many  of 
the  Mexicans  themselves  would  look  with  favor  upon  a  govern- 
ment strong  enough  to  maintain  law  and  order.  Accordingly, 
French  troops  occupied  the  City  of  Mexico  ;  and  at  the  dictation 
of  Napoleon,  a  few  Mexican  leaders  voted  to  establish  an 
empire,  with  Archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria  as  emperor. 
This  action  was  a  flagrant  violation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
but  Napoleon  counted  on  the  fact  that  the  United  States  was 
engaged  in  a  life  and  death  struggle  for  its  own  existence.  If 
the  Confederates  won  the  war,  as  he  expected,  the  North  could 
not  interfere   with  his  plans ;  while  if  the  Union   should  be 

480 


THIRTY  YEARS   OF   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  481 

victorious,  it  would  not  be  easy  to  undo  his  work  if  the  Mexi- 
cans themselves  accepted  the  new  government. 

Soon  after  the  victory  at  Appomattox,  Secretary  Seward 
informed  Napoleon  that  the  United  States  would  no  longer 
tolerate  a  French  army  on  American  soil  for  the  purpose  of 
compelling  Mexico  to  accept  a  foreign  ruler.  As  a  hint  that  our 
government  was  in  earnest,  General  Sheridan  with  50,000  men 
was  ordered  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Napoleon  had  promised  Max- 
imilian the  aid  of  his  army  for  at  least  three  years,  but  he  feared 
that  the  French  people  would  not  support  him  in  a  war  with  the 
United  States.  So  he  ordered  his  soldiers  back  to  France, 
whereupon  the  Mexicans  overthrew  the  imperial  government, 
put  Maximilian  to  death,  and  restored  the  Republic.  Once 
more  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  vindicated. 

The  Purchase  of  Alaska,  1867.  While  these  stirring  events 
were  taking  place  in  Mexico,  Secretary  Seward  was  carrying  on 
friendly  negotiations  with  Russia  for  the  purchase  of  Alaska. 
Russia  had  found  this  territory  a  source  of  heavy  expense  rather 
than  of  profit,  largely  because  of  her  incompetent  and  corrupt 
governors.  Secretary  Seward  had  a  true  notion  of  the  future 
possibilities  of  Alaska,  and  was  also  anxious  to  show  our  ap- 
preciation of  Russia's  friendship  during  the  Civil  War.  So 
when  the  Russian  minister  at  Washington  offered  to  sell  Alaska, 
our  Secretary  of  State  promptly  signed  the  treaty.  Many 
people  thought  that  the  price  of  $7,200,000  was  too  much  to  pay 
for  a  "  vast  area  of  rocks  and  ice,"  and  called  the  treaty 
"  Seward's  Folly."  However,  the  Senate  did  not  wish  to 
offend  our  good  friend  Russia,  and  the  treaty  was  promptly 
ratified.  Alaska  added  577,000  square  miles  to  our  national 
domain,  and  as  we  now  know,  is  a  territory  of  immense  value. 
Her  products  of  gold,  copper,  fur,  timber,  and  fish  have  yielded 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  to  the  United  States. 

Secretary  Seward  also  tried  to  purchase  from  Denmark  two 
of  her  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  but 
Congress  would  not  approve  the  purchase.  Somewhat  later 
President  Grant  failed  in  his  attempt  to  annex  the  island  repub- 
lic of  Santo  Domingo,  the  Senate  refusing  to  ratify  the  treaty. 


482      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

A  third  opportunity  for  expansion  was  rejected  in  1877,  when 
our  government  declined  to  annex  the  Samoan  Islands  at  the 
request  of  their  inhabitants. 

The  Alabama  Claims.  With  Great  Britain  we  had  a  serious 
dispute  growing  out  of  her  failure  to  observe  certain  rules  of 
neutrality  during  the  Civil  War.  Several  Confederate  cruisers 
had  been  built  and  fitted  out  in  British  shipyards  to  prey  upon 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States.  Our  minister  at  London 
repeatedly  asked  the  British  government  to  prevent  these  ships 
from  leaving  port,  but  no  action  was  taken.  As  a  result,  im- 
mense damage  was  inflicted  on  the  commerce  of  the  North. 
Before  she  was  sunk  by  a  Union  warship,  the  Alabama  succeeded 
in  destroying  sixty  merchant  vessels ;  while  the  Shenandoah 
and  the  Florida  also  made  many  captures. 

After  the  war,  public  opinion  in  the  United  States  demanded 
a  settlement  with  Great  Britain.  After  a  good  deal  of  contro- 
versy, the  two  countries  finally  signed  the  Treaty  of  Washington 
by  which  they  agreed  to  arbitrate  the  dispute.  The  "  Alabama 
Claims,"  as  they  were  called,  were  to  be  decided  by  an  inter- 
national court  of  five  members  meeting  at  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
One  arbitrator  was  chosen  by  the  United  States,  one  by  Great 
Britain,  and  one  each  by  the  governments  of  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  Brazil.  The  decision  of  this  tribunal  was,  that  Great 
Britain  had  failed  in  her  duty  as  a  neutral  in  connection  with 
three  of  the  Confederate  cruisers  —  the  Alabama,  the  Florida, 
and  the  Shenandoah;  and  that  she  should  pay  the  United  States 
$15,500,000  for  the  damage  done  by  these  ships.  Great  Britain 
paid  the  money  promptly,  and  the  Geneva  Award  gave  the 
world  a  splendid  example  of  arbitration  as  a  means  of  settling 
disputes  between  nations. 

Treaties  Concerning  Naturalization.  Immigration  to  the 
United  States  had  fallen  off  during  the  war,  but  beginning  with 
1866,  more  than  300,000  foreigners  were  landing  on  our  shores 
each  year.  The  question  now  arose,  could  these  persons  re- 
nounce their  allegiance  to  their  former  governments,  and 
become  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States  ?  The  leading 
powers  of  Europe  said  that  they  could  not  do  this  without  the 


THIRTY   YEARS   OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


483 


consent  of  the  country  whose  allegiance  they  wished  to  renounce. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  United  States  maintained  that  the  con- 
sent of  the  foreign  government  was  not  necessary  to  enable  a 
man  to  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  this  country.  The 
position  taken  by  the  United  States  was  a  departure  from  the 
practice  of  centuries,  but  the  leading  nations  of  Europe  finally 
agreed  to  it.  Treaties  were  signed  with  the  United  States 
during  the  years  from  1868  to  1872,  under  which  a  citizen  or 
subject  of  one  country  who  becomes  naturalized  under  the  laws 
of  another  and  resides  there  for  five  years,  is  recognized  as 
having  become  a  citizen  or  subject  of  the  latter  country. 

Relations  with  Latin- America.  Our  relations  with  the  coun- 
tries of  Central  and  South  America  became  more  cordial  in 
the  years  that  followed  the  Civil  War.     During  the  conflict 


The  Pan-American  Union,  Washington,  D.C. 

Home  of  the  international  organization  maintained   by  the  twenty-one 
American  republics. 


between  Spain  and  Peru,  Chile,  and  Ecuador  (1864-1869),  the 
United  States  offered  her  friendly  services  as  mediator,  and 
finally  persuaded  the  warring  nations  to  sign  an  armistice. 
A  few  years  later,  Argentina  and  Paraguay  submitted  their 
territorial  dispute  to  President  Hayes  as  arbitrator.  Costa 
Rica  and  Nicaragua  submitted  a  similar  boundary  dispute 
to  the  decision  of  President  Cleveland,  while  Argentina  and 


484      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

Brazil  asked  President  Harrison  to  act  as  umpire  in  their  con- 
test. Numerous  disputes  between  the  United  States  and 
our  southern  neighbors  were  also  disposed  of  by  friendly  arbitra- 
tion. For  example,  our  claims  against  Colombia  on  account  of 
riots  at  Panama  were  submitted  for  decision  to  the  British 
minister  at  Washington;  while  other  claims  against  Mexico, 
Brazil,  and  Venezuela  were  settled  in  the  same  friendly  spirit. 

The  first  Pan-American  Congress  in  which  the  United  States 
took  part  met  at  Washington  in  1889-1890.  Nineteen  Ameri- 
can republics  were  represented,  the  object  of  the  Congress  being 
to  promote  better  relations  among  the  nations  of  the  two 
continents.  A  plan  of  arbitration  was  recommended  as  a  means 
of  settling  international  disputes ;  and  although  this  plan  was 
afterwards  rejected,  its  proposal  marked  a  forward  step.  The 
real  achievement  of  the  Congress  was  the  establishment  of  the 
Pan-American  Union  at  Washington,  composed  of  representa- 
tives from  the  various  Latin- American  republics,  with  our 
Secretary  of  State  as  chairman. 

Disputes  with  Chile  and  Italy.  The  United  States  had 
serious  disputes  with  both  Chile  and  Italy  in  the  year  1891. 
Our  grievance  against  Chile  was  due  to  the  fact  that  a  party 
of  American  sailors  was  attacked  by  a  mob  in  the  streets  of 
Valparaiso,  two  of  their  number  being  killed  and  several 
wounded.     For  this  outrage  Chile  paid  an  indemnity  of  $75,000. 

In  the  difficulty  with  Italy,  a  mob  in  our  own  country  was  the 
aggressor.  Eleven  Italians  under  arrest  in  New  Orleans  for  the 
murder  of  the  chief  of  police,  were  taken  from  jail  by  a  mob  and 
shot  to  death.  Several  of  the  victims  were  Italian  subjects,  and 
their  government  promptly  demanded  the  punishment  of  the 
mob's  leaders,  and  an  indemnity  for  the  families  of  the  men  who 
were  killed.  Our  Secretary  of  State  pointed  out  that  the  United 
States  had  no  authority  to  punish  the  mob,  and  that  its  action 
could  be  punished  only  by  the  state  of  Louisiana.  This  expla- 
nation did  not  satisfy  the  Italian  government,  which  recalled  its 
minister  from  Washington,  while  our  minister  left  Rome.  Con- 
gress finally  settled  the  dispute  by  paying  $25,000  to  the  Italian 
government  for  the  benefit  of  the  families  of  the  murdered  men. 


THIRTY   YEARS  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  485 

Affairs  in  the  Pacific  —  The  Samoan  Islands.  Three  events 
during  the  decade  from  1885  to  1895  showed  that  the  United 
States  was  vitally  interested  in  the  affairs  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  first  was  a  dispute  over  the  Samoan  Islands,  the  second 
a  controversy  over  the  Behring  Sea  fisheries,  while  the  third 
was  Hawaii's  request  for  annexation  to  the  United  States.  The 
dispute  over  the  Samoan  Islands  was  due  to  Germany's  jealousy 
of  our  growing  power  in  the  Pacific.  These  islands  were  then 
under  the  protection  of  three  countries,  the  United  States, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  Anxious  to  build  up  a  colonial 
empire,  the  German  chancellor,  Bismarck,  planned  to  oust 
the  British  and  Americans.  All  three  countries  sent  warships 
to  the  islands,  but  diplomacy  finally  settled  the  quarrel.  Some 
years  later,  it  was  agreed  that  the  United  States  should  have  the 
island  of  Tutuila  with  the  harbor  of  Pago-Pago,  the  remain- 
der of  the  islands  passing  under  German  rule.  The  Samoan 
quarrel  showed  the  need  of  a  stronger  navy  to  protect  our  rights. 
Congress  appropriated  $40,000,000  for  new  warships,  and  within 
a  few  years  our  country  rose  from  twelfth  to  fifth  place  among 
naval  powers. 

Arbitration  of  the  Behring  Sea  Dispute.  The  year  1893 
marked  the  settlement  of  a  long-standing  dispute  with  Great 
Britain  over  the  seal  fisheries.  Ownership  of  Alaska,  the  United 
States  claimed,  included  jurisdiction  over  the  waters  of  Behring 
Sea,  with  the  exclusive  right  to  hunt  seals  there.  Great  Britain 
denied  this  claim,  insisting  that  our  jurisdiction  extended  only 
to  a  line  three  miles  out  from  shore.  When  United  States 
cruisers  seized  a  number  of  Canadian  vessels  as  poachers,  Great 
Britain  sent  a  note  of  protest  to  our  Department  of  State.  At 
length  it  was  agreed  to  arbitrate  the  dispute.  The  decision  of 
the  arbitration  tribunal  was  against  the  claim  of  the  United 
States,  although  rules  were  laid  down  to  prevent  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  seal  herds. 

Revolution  in  Hawaii.  A  revolution  broke  out  in  Hawaii  in 
1893,  when  the  native  ruler  tried  to  overthrow  the  constitution 
and  rule  as  an  absolute  monarch.  American  settlers  living 
there  deposed  the  queen,  and  after  setting  up  a  republic,  asked 


486      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

to  have  Hawaii  annexed  to  the  United  States.  President 
Harrison  sent  an  annexation  treaty  to  the  Senate,  but  it  was 
near  the  close  of  his  term,  and  the  Senate  failed  to  act  on  it. 
His  successor,  President  Cleveland,  was  opposed  to  the  entire 
movement ;  he  withdrew  the  treaty  from  the  Senate,  and  so  the 
annexation  of  Hawaii  was  postponed  for  several  years. 

The  Venezuelan  Boundary  Dispute,  1895.  For  more  than 
half  a  century,  there  had  been  a  dispute  between  Great  Britain 
and  Venezuela  over  the  western  boundary  of  British  Guiana. 
The  United  States  repeatedly  asked  Great  Britain  to  arbitrate 
the  question,  but  she  declined  to  do  this.  Finally  President 
Cleveland  sent  his  famous  Venezuelan  message  to  Congress, 
declaring  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  gave  the  United  States 
the  right  to  insist  upon  arbitration  of  the  boundary  line.  As 
the  chief  power  in  America,  and  the  natural  protector  of  Ameri- 
can interests,  the  United  States  would  "  resist  by  every  means  in 
its  power "  any  attempt  by  Great  Britain  to  appropriate 
territory  belonging  to  Venezuela. 

The  British  government  was  indignant  over  this  message, 
which  sounded  very  much  like  a  challenge ;  but  public  opinion 
in  the  United  States  strongly  supported  the  President  in  his  bold 
stand  for  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  the  rights  of  a  weaker  nation. 
The  war  cloud  disappeared  when  Great  Britain  consented  to 
submit  the  entire  question  to  arbitration.  The  result  was 
that  she  received  five  sixths  of  the  territory  in  dispute,  Venez- 
uela the  remainder.  Best  of  all,  the  two  great  English-speaking 
powers  were  on  more  friendly  terms  than  ever,  and  arbitration 
had  won  another  victory  as  a  means  of  settling  disputes  between 
nations. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  ch.  XIV. 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXVII. 
Coolidge,  A.  C,  The  United  States  as  a  World  Power,  ch.  XVI. 
Dewey,  D.  R.,    National  Problems  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 

XIII,  XIX. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch. 

XXXII. 


THIRTY   YEARS   OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


487 


Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  ch.  XXIX. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory:  Treaty  with  Russia  for  Purchase  of  Alaska,  1867,  pp.  511— 
514  ;    Annexation  of  Hawaiian  Islands,  pp.  600-602. 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the   United  States,  VI,  ch.  XXXVIII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Foreign  Affairs  after  the  Civil  War.  Foster,  John  W.,  A  Cen- 
tury of  American  Diplomacy,  ch.  XI. 

2.  The  Purchase  of  Alaska.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of  Amer- 
ican Expansion,  ch.  VII  ;  Mo  wry,  W.  A.,  Territorial  Growth  of  the 
United  States,  ch.  VIII. 

REFERENCES  FOR   PUPILS 

Great  Epochs  in  American  History,  IX,  pp.  98-105,  159-172. 


The  Cathedral,  Mexico  City 

One  of  the  fine  Renaissance  structures,  founded  in  1573,  which  the  Mexic; 
have  preserved  from  the  days  of  Spanish  rule. 


1^ 


CHAPTER   XL 
THE   NEW   WEST   AND   THE   NEW   SOUTH 

The  West  before  1865.  The  twenty  years  following  the 
Civil  War  saw  a  wonderful  development  of  the  region  beyond 
the  Mississippi  River.  Before  the  war,  the  country  west  of  the 
one  hundredth  meridian  was  practically  uninhabited  by  white 
men,  except  in  California  and  Utah,  and  in  the  Columbia  Valley. 
This  new  West  embraced  a  vast  expanse  of  territory,  stretching 
twelve  hundred  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  nearly  the  same 
distance  from  north  to  south.  The  rainfall  was  less  than  in  the 
central  Mississippi  Valley,  and  most  of  this  area  was  thought 
to  be  a  desert  waste,  unfit  for  agriculture.  Vast  herds  of 
buffalo  roamed  over  the  plains,  which  were  the  hunting  grounds 
of  still  powerful  Indian  tribes.  The  hostility  of  the  Indians, 
the  scanty  rainfall,  and  the  lack  of  information  concerning  the 
hidden  resources  of  the  country  were  factors  that  delayed  the 
westward  movement.  But  the  supreme  obstacle  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Far  West  was  the  absence  of  transportation  facilities. 
Throughout  all  this  vast  area  of  one  million  square  miles,  there 
was  not  a  single  railroad  to  bring  settlers  from  the  East,  or  to 
carry  back  the  products  of  the  West.  As  in  the  days  of  the 
Forty-Niners,  settlers  had  to  follow  the  caravan  route  along  the 
Oregon  and  California  trails. 

Congress  Charters  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  Before  the 
year  1860,  the  East  had  shown  little  interest  in  the  project  of  a 
railway  to  the  Pacific.  Congress  discussed  the  question,  but 
could  not  decide  whether  to  build  a  northern  or  a  southern  line. 
The  Civil  War  changed  this  situation.  The  South  had  at- 
tempted to  secede  ;  was  there  not  danger  that  California  and  the 
Oregon  country  might  break  away  from  a  Union  so  remote? 
Spurred  to  action  at  last,  Congress  in  1862  granted  a  charter  to 

488 


THE  NEW  WEST  AND  THE  NEW  SOUTH 


489 


the  Union  Pacific  Railway  for  a  line  from  Omaha  westward  across 
the  continent.  In  the  same  year,  the  state  of  California 
chartered  the  Central  Pacific,  which  began  a  line  from  San 
Francisco  eastward  across  the  Sierras.  Congress  gave  each  rail- 
road liberal  grants  of  land  along  its  line,  offering  ten  square 
miles  of  land  for  each  mile  of  track  built.  The  government  also 
loaned  the  roads  large  sums  of  money,  taking  railway  bonds  as 
security. 

Building  the  First  Continental  Railway.     The  construction  of 
this  first  continental  railway  was  the  greatest  engineering  feat  in 


Driving  the  Last  Spike  in  the  Continental  Railroad 

From  the  original  painting  by  Thomas  Hill  in  the  Museum,  Golden  Gate 
Park,  San  Francisco. 

America  prior  to  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal.  At  the 
California  end,  the  company  had  to  bring  rails  and  locomotives 
from  the  East  around  Cape  Horn.  There  were  mountains  to 
be  tunneled,  rivers  to  be  bridged,  tracks  to  be  laid  across  lava 
deserts.  The  Indian  tribes  saw  with  dismay  the  white  man's 
civilization  closing  in  on  them  from  both  east  and  west ;  and 
they  attacked  the  construction  gangs  with  savage  fury.  In 
spite  of  every  obstacle,  an  army  of  laborers  pushed  the  work 


490      THE   UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

to  completion  within  seven  years.  On  May  10,  1869,  the  line 
from  the  east  met  the  line  from  the  west  at  a  point  near  Ogden, 
Utah.  There,  in  the  presence  of  a  crowd  of  spectators,  the  last 
tie  was  laid,  and  Governor  Leland  Stanford  drove  the  golden 
spike  presented  by  the  state  of  California.  The  Far  West 
was  at  last  firmly  bound  to  the  East  by  a  band  of  iron.  Within 
a  few  years,  the  buffalo  disappeared  from  the  western  prairies, 
the  Indians  fought  their  last  hopeless  battles,  and  an  army  of 
settlers  found  new  homes  in  the  land  of  unlimited  possibilities. 
The  WTest  had  come  into  its  heritage. 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  A  second  Pacific  railroad 
was  completed  some  years  later  to  help  move  the  human  tide  into 
the  northwestern  country.  This  new  road  was  the  Northern 
Pacific,  connecting  Duluth  on  Lake  Superior  with  Tacoma  on 
Puget  Sound.  Within  a  few  years  after  its  completion,  one 
million  people  were  making  their  homes  along  its  route,  and  six 
large  states  had  been  organized  and  admitted  to  the  Union. 
Washington,  Montana,  North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota 
gained  statehood  in  1889,  Wyoming  and  Idaho  in  1890.  So 
rapid  were  the  changes  that  one  writer  of  the  time  could  say : 
"  Living  men,  not  very  old  yet,  have  seen  the  Indians  on  the  war- 
path, the  buffaloes  stopping  the  trains,  the  cowboy  driving  his 
cattle,  the  herder  watching  his  sheep,  the  government  irrigation 
dam,  and  the  automobile,  —  have  seen  every  one  of  these 
slides  which  progress  puts  for  a  moment  into  its  magic  lantern 
and  removes  to  replace  with  a  new  one."  As  the  buffalo  dis- 
appeared, the  prairies  upon  which  he  fed  were  turned  into 
grazing  land  for  domestic  cattle,  and  next  into  corn  and  wheat 
fields.  The  grain  was  shipped  over  the  railroads  to  the  East, 
and  thence  by  ocean  vessels  to  feed  the  people  of  Europe.  By 
the  year  1880,  the  fertile  prairies  of  the  West  had  become  the 
nation's  granary. 

The  Homestead  Act  of  1862.  Another  great  aid  to  the 
development  of  the  West  was  the  Homestead  Act  of  1862. 
Under  this  law,  the  head  of  a  family  might  secure  title  to  160 
acres  of  public  land  by  settling  upon  it  and  cultivating  it  for  five 
years.     About  this  time,  too,  the  President  was  authorized  to 


Plowing  Four  to  Five  Acres  a  Day 


Cultivating  Two  Rows  at  a  Time  with  Tractor 


Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Company  i 

Tractor  Disc  Harrow 

The  Evolution  of  Plowing 

491 


492       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

appoint  a  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  whose  office  gives  the 
farmers  scientific  information  about  crops,  soils,  and  live  stock. 
Irrigation  came  into  general  use  to  make  up  for  the  scanty  rain- 
fall ;  and  within  a  shorter  time  than  any  recorded  in  history, 
the  West  was  peopled  with  sturdy  pioneers  who  knew  how  to 
utilize  its  resources. 

Farm  Machinery  Aids  the  Growth  of  the  West.  The  use  of 
labor-saving  machinery  was  an  important  factor  in  transforming 
the  western  prairies  into  fertile  farms.  When  labor  was  plenti- 
ful before  the  war,  many  farmers  were  skeptical  about  the  new 
appliances ;  but  when  the  fighting  began  and  they  could  not  get 
help,  the  manufacturers  could  hardly  fill  their  orders  for  ma- 
chinery. Mowing  machines,  drills,  threshers,  and  traction 
engines  made  it  possible  for  one  man  in  1880  to  do  the  work  that 
required  twelve  men  in  1860.  On  the  largest  farms  of  the  West, 
enormous  steam  traction  engines  are  now  used  to  operate  plows, 
harrows,  drills,  and  harvesting  machines.  The  complete  har- 
vester cuts  down  the  standing  grain,  threshes  it,  and  measures, 
fills,  and  ties  the  sacks  while  it  travels  across  the  field.  Nothing 
remains  except  to  deliver  the  grain  to  immense  elevators  where 
it  is  graded  and  stored,  to  be  afterwards  ground  into  flour  for 
the  world's  markets. 

Discovery  of  Gold  and  Silver  Mines.  The  lure  of  gold  played 
a  large  part  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  West.  The  discovery  of 
rich  deposits  of  the  precious  metal  brought  60,000  gold  seekers 
into  Colorado  in  a  single  year,  and  the  cities  of  Boulder,  Denver, 
and  Leadville  sprang  into  magic  life.  Colorado  was  organized 
as  a  separate  territory  in  1861,  and  admitted  as  the  Centennial 
state  in  1876.  Rich  silver  deposits  brought  a  throng  of  "  Fifty- 
Niners  "  into  Nevada,  which  gained  statehood  in  1864.  Utah 
was  first  settled  by  Mormons,  under  their  leader  Brigham  Young. 
By  means  of  irrigation,  these  industrious  settlers  changed  a 
desert  waste  into  a  prosperous  farming  region ;  and  Utah  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1896. 

Indian  Wars.  In  the  Northwest,  as  in  California  and  Colo- 
rado, the  gold  seekers  came  before  the  farmers  or  the  railroads. 
When  the  precious  ore  was  discovered  on  the  reservation  of  the 


THE  NEW  WEST  AND  THE  NEW  SOUTH 


493 


fierce  Sioux  tribes  in  southwestern  Dakota  Territory,  the  white 
intruders  were  attacked  by  several  thousand  warriors  under  their 
chief,  Sitting  Bull.  The  desperate  resistance  of  the  Sioux  was  a 
hopeless  struggle,  the  final  stand  of  the  Indian  against  the  tide 
of  civilization.  Even  the  destruction  of  General  Custer's  entire 
command  at  the  Little  Big  Horn  did  nothing  except  to  prolong 


Courtesy  of  John  A.  Widtsoe. 

The  Temple  and  Tabernacle,  Salt  Lake  City 

The  migration  of  the  Mormons  from  the  east  occurred  from  1845  to  1848. 
They  brought  overland  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  all  their  building  supplies. 
Instead  of  nails,  leather  thongs  and  wooden  bolts  were  used  in  building  the 
Tabernacle. 

the  conflict.  In  this  combat,  Custer's  force  was  outnumbered 
twelve  to  one.  Two  hundred  and  sixty  soldiers  went  into  the 
fight,  and  every  man  was  killed.  In  the  end,  the  Sioux  were 
defeated  and  obliged  to  give  up  their  hunting  ranges  on  the 
Black  Hills. 

Between  the  years  1865  and  1880,  there  was  almost  constant 
warfare  with  the  Indians,  usually  caused  by  attempts  of  the 


I 


"2 


494 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 


iru^cf 


tribes  to  leave  their  reservations,  or  by  the  encroachment  of 
white  settlers.  Fighting  with  the  Indians  during  these  years 
cost  the  country  twenty-two  million  dollars,  and  the  lives  of 
many  soldiers.  Our  unjust  treatment  of  the  natives  was 
clearly  pointed  out  by  President  Hayes :  "  In  many  instances 
when  the  Indians  had  settled  down  upon  lands  assigned  to  them 
by  compact  and  had  begun  to  support  themselves  by  their  own 

labor,  they  were  rudely 
jostled  off  and  thrust 
into  the  wilderness  again. 
Many,  if  not  most,  of  our 
Indian  wars  have  had  their 
origin  in  broken  promises 
and  acts  of  injustice  on  our 
part." 

Our  Indian  Policy.  For 
years  our  policy  in  dealing 
with  the  Indians  was  to 
place  them  on  reservations, 
where  they  kept  up  their 
tribal  organization,  subject 
to  the  control  of  Indian 
agents  appointed  by  the 
President.  As  the  whites 
pressed  westward,  they 
constantly  encroached  upon 
the  lands  reserved  to  the 
Indians,  whereupon,  the 
federal  government  would  make  a  new  treaty  with  the  tribe  for 
the  cession  of  its  lands,  and  move  it  farther  west.  It  was  a 
bitter  but  true  complaint  that  one  of  the  Sioux  warriors  made 
to  the  peace  commissioners  after  the  fighting  in  the  Black  Hills  : 
"  Tell  your  people  that  since  the  Great  Father  promised  we 
should  never  be  removed,  we  have  been  moved  five  times.  I 
think  you  had  better  put  the  Indians  on  wheels,  and  you  can 
run  them  about  wherever  you  wish." 
The  Indians  on  the  reservations  lived  an  aimless,  indolent 


Custer's  Monument 

Marking  the  scene  of  CusterVdefeat  at  the 
Little  Big  Horn  River,  Montana. 


THE   NEW  WEST  AND   THE   NEW  SOUTH  495 


Railroad  Development  in  the  West 

Showing  the  Mormon  trail  from  Nauvoo  to  Utah,  the  route  of  the  Pony 
Express,  and  the  principal  railroads  to  the  Pacific. 

life,  fed  and  clothed  by  the  government ;  and  they  were  demor- 
alized by  the  white  man's  liquor  as  they  had  been  since  the 
days  of  Columbus.  Reservation  life,  and  the  policy  of  making 
treaties  with  the  Indians  as  if  they  were  separate  nations,  proved 
a  complete  failure ;  and  beginning  in  1887,  a  new  Indian  policy 
was  adopted.  Since  this  time,  the  Indians  have  been  dealt  with 
as  individuals,  rather  than  as  tribes.  In  many  cases,  the  head  of 
the  family  has  been  given  his  own  farm  under  restrictions  that  pre- 
vent him  from  selling  it  for  a  period  of  years.  By  this  new  plan, 
about  one  half  of  the  300,000  Indians  living  in  the  West  have  re- 
ceived farms  of  their  own ,  Thus  after  many  years  of  failure  in 
our  Indian  policy,  a  wise  attempt  is  being  made  to  encourage 
the  Indians  to  become  citizens  and  to  look  after  themselves. 

Development  of  the  Southwest.  While  the  Union  Pacific  was 
opening  the  Central  West,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  the  great 
Northwest,  a  third  railway  was  being  built  through  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States.     This  was  the  Santa  Fe,  which 


496      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD    POWER 

crossed  Kansas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona  to  Los  Angeles. 
Connecting  lines  were  built  into  Texas,  and  soon  the  Lone  Star 
State  had  the  largest  railway  mileage  of  any  state  in  the  Union. 
San  Antonio,  Dallas,  and  Fort  Worth  became  thriving  inland 
centers  of  trade,  while  Galveston  and  Houston  developed  into 
important  seaports. 

The  Santa  Fe  road  also  hastened  the  development  of  Okla- 
homa, which  formed  the  western  part  of  what  was  called 
the  Indian  Territory.  Large  tracts  of  public  land  were  thrown 
open  in  this  territory  in  1889 ;  and  on  the  day  announced  in 
the  President's  proclamation,  one  hundred  thousand  men, 
women,  and  children  raced  across  the  border  to  secure  home- 
steads. Before  nightfall,  Guthrie  was  a  city  of  10,000  in- 
habitants, with  a  bank,  a  daily  paper,  and  a  city  council ;  while 
thousands  of  farms  had  been  staked  out  on  the  Oklahoma 
plains.  Within  a  year,  there  were  60,000  white  settlers  in  the 
territory ;  and  in  1907  Oklahoma,  to  which  Indian  Territory  had 
been  united,  was  admitted  as  the  forty-sixth  state. 

The  lack  of  rainfall  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  delayed  the 
development  of  this  region,  but  irrigation  at  last  solved  the 
problem,  and  the  Southwest  joined  the  march  of  progress. 
The  railroads  brought  in  thousands  of  settlers,  who  engaged 
in  mining,  agriculture,  and  stock  raising.  Congress  admitted 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  as  states  in  1912,  thus  completing  the 
Federal  Union. 

The  Passing  of  the  American  Frontier.  With  the  settlement 
of  Oklahoma  and  the  six  northwestern  states  admitted  in 
1889-1890,  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States  were  practi- 
cally exhausted.  The  building  of  the  Pacific  railroads  and  the 
influx  of  settlers  that  followed,  had  done  their  work  ;  and  for  the 
first  time  in  our  national  life,  there  was  no  longer  a  western 
frontier.  With  the  disappearance  of  free  public  lands,  a  new  era 
began  in  our  history.  Men  who  were  restless  and  discontented, 
or  who  had  made  a  failure  in  the  settled  portion  of  the  country, 
could  no  longer  mend  their  fortunes  in  the  West.  As  a  result, 
there  were  more  conflicts  between  labor  and  capital  than  ever 
before. 


THE   NEW  WEST  AND  THE   NEW  SOUTH  497 

The  frontier  had  a  permanent  effect  on  American  life,  for 
it  made  our  government  more  democratic  than  it  otherwise 
would  have  been.  The  frontier  bred  freedom,  and  independ- 
ence of  thought  and  action ;  hence  the  progressive  frontiersmen 
were  impatient  of  the  traditions  of  the  older  sections.  The 
West  led  the  way  in  granting  universal  suffrage,  and  in  demand- 
ing the  abolition  of  slavery ;  while  from  the  rude  cabins  of  the 
frontier  came  such  leaders  as  William  Henry  Harrison,  Andrew 
Jackson,  and  Abraham  Lincoln. 

The  New  South.  The  rebuilding  of  the  South  in  the  half 
century  following  the  Civil  War  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
chapters  in  our  history.  That  great  conflict  brought  ruin  and 
poverty  to  the  southern  states ;  and  for  ten  years  after  its  close, 
they  had  to  endure  the  robbery  and  demoralization  of  the 
reconstruction  governments.  With  the  end  of  reconstruction, 
the  South  took  up  with  splendid  courage  the  task  of  creating  a 
new  industrial  life.  The  old  plantation  system  with  its  pic- 
turesque life  and  slave  labor  was  gone  forever.  The  negro 
now  worked  for  wages,  like  the  field  hands  at  the  North,  or 
else  cultivated  a  few  acres  of  his  own.  The  South  soon  found 
that  free  labor  is  more  efficient  than  slave  labor.  Emancipation 
also  proved  a  boon  to  the  poor  whites  of  the  South,  who  made 
better  progress  now  that  manual  labor  was  no  longer  thought 
degrading. 

Changes  in  Agriculture.  The  use  of  free  labor  was  only  one 
of  the  many  changes  in  southern  industry.  Another  was  the 
breaking  up  of  the  large  plantations.  Many  planters  were 
compelled  to  sell  part  of  their  lands  at  the  close  of  the  war,  for 
emancipation  had  destroyed  much  of  their  working  capital ; 
and  between  1860  and  1880,  the  average  size  of  the  southern 
farms  decreased  one  half.  The  division  of  these  large  estates 
proved  a  boon  to  the  South.  Small  farms  meant  better  methods 
of  production,  a  more  scientific  tillage  of  the  soil.  On  the 
great  plantations  before  the  war,  there  were  immense  tracts  of 
wild  woodland ;  to-day  these  wastes  have  become  small  farms, 
cultivated  with  careful  economy.  As  a  result,  thousands  of 
immigrants  from  the  North  have  found  homes  in  the  new  South. 


3 
w 


498      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

This  has  led  to  an  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  and  churches, 
making  rural  life  in  the  South  more  like  that  in  the  North  and 
West. 

Another  change  is  the  greater  variety  of  crops  that  are  grown. 
Before  the  war,  the  southern  planter  relied  on  one  staple  crop, 
either  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar,  or  rice.  Other  crops  were  neg- 
lected ;  as  a  rule,  even  the  meat  eaten  by  the  landowner's  family 
was  not  produced  on  the  plantation.  To-day  the  southern 
farmer  is  learning  to  diversify  his  crops,  and  to  raise  cattle  and 
hogs  as  well  as  cotton  and  tobacco.     Dairying,  horticulture,  and 


Courtesy  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 

A  Round-up  in  North  Dakota 


truck  raising  have  become  important  industries  as  a  result  of 
using  resources  that  slavery  left  untouched. 

Growth  of  Manufactures.  Most  striking  of  all  is  the  growth 
of  southern  manufactures.  Before  the  war,  the  South  was 
content  to  be  a  producer  of  raw  materials.  It  was  an  agricul- 
tural section,  exchanging  its  staples  for  manufactured  goods 
made  in  the  North  or  in  Europe.  To-day,  while  agriculture  is 
still  the  dominant  industry,  manufactures  are  developing  rap- 
idly. Many  cotton  factories  have  been  established,  and  the 
mills  of  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  spin  more  than  one 
half  of  the  cotton  grown  in  those  states. 

The  immense  deposits  of  coal  underlying  the  mountains 
of  the  South,  its  vast  resources  of  natural  gas,  and  large  forests 


THE  NEW  WEST  AND  THE  NEW  SOUTH  499 

of  pine  and  hardwood,  are  being  drawn  upon  to  make  it  a  manu- 
facturing region.  A  rich  mineral  section  stretching  from  West 
Virginia  to  northern  Alabama  has  been  opened  up ;  and  the 
proximity  of  coking  coal  and  limestone  to  the  ore  has  built 
up  a  great  iron  industry.  In  1890  the  South  produced  as  much 
coal,  iron  ore,  and  pig  iron  as  the  entire  country  did  in  1870. 
The  South  now  rivals  Pennsylvania  in  the  production  of  pig 
iron ;  and  Birmingham,  Alabama,  has  become  a  second  Pitts- 
burgh. Saw  mills  and  furniture  factories  are  utilizing  the 
wealth  of  the  southern  forests,  and  tobacco  factories  have 
multiplied.  This  growth  of  manufactures  has  increased  the 
number  of  dwellers  in  towns  and  cities,  thus  creating  a  better 
market  for  the  farm  products  of  the  surrounding  country. 

Southern  Railways.  The  South,  like  the  West,  had  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  construction  of  new  railway  lines.  The 
Southern  Pacific  is  a  transcontinental  line  connecting  New 
Orleans  and  Galveston  with  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco; 
while  a  network  of  railroads  consolidated  into  three  or  four  im- 
mense systems  now  covers  the  South.  Through  their  immigra- 
tion and  agricultural  bureaus  the  railways  have  done  much  to 
attract  settlers,  and  to  build  up  southern  industries.  A  Cotton 
Centennial  Celebration  was  held  at  New  Orleans  in  1884  to  cele- 
brate the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  first  shipment  to 
Europe  of  a  bale  of  American  cotton.  This  exposition,  like  that 
held  at  Atlanta  in  1895,  at  Nashville  in  1897,  and  at  Jamestown 
in  1907,  showed  what  the  new  South  is  accomplishing  in  edu- 
cation, agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  mining. 

Progress  in  Education.  There  has  also  been  a  marked  ad- 
vance in  education.  The  South  made  little  progress  toward 
a  system  of  free  public  schools  before  the  Civil  War ;  but  to-day 
every  southern  state  maintains  a  complete  school  system, 
including  separate  schools  for  the  colored  children.  The  num- 
ber of  public  high  schools  has  increased  to  more  than  3000,  while 
for  higher  education  there  are  state  universities  supported  by 
public  taxes.  Illiteracy  has  been  reduced  from  thirty-two  per 
cent  in  1890  to  seventeen  per  cent  in  1910.  During  the  last 
twenty-five  years  the  number  of  school  children  and  the  number 


500      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

of  schools  have  doubled,  while  the  expenditure  for  education  has 
increased  threefold.  Many  industrial  schools  for  the  colored 
race  have  been  established,  the  most  noted  of  which  is  the 
Tuskegee  Institute,  founded  by  Booker  T.  Washington.  He  was 
graduated  from  another  excellent  school,  Hampton  Institute. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the   United  States,  ch.  XXXII. 
Harding,   S.   B.,   Select    Orations   Illustrative  of   American  History: 

The  New  South  (Henry  W.  Grady),  pp.  489-500. 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  chs.  II,  IX,  XII. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  National  Development  (American  Nation  Series),  chs. 

IV,  XIV,  XV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Railroads  and  Industry.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States,  ch.  XXV. 

2.  The  Public  Lands.  Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  I,  ch. 
Ill ;  II,  ch.  II. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Westward  Movement,  ch.  XXII. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship,  ch.  XVIII. 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American  Frontier,  ch.  XXII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  PUPILS 

1.  The  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of 
a  United  People,  pp.  135-140  ;  Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American 
Frontier,  ch.  XIII. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
THE   AGE    OF   BIG   BUSINESS 

The  Growth  of  Corporations.  The  rise  of  large  corporations 
in  the  business  world  was  one  of  the  results  of  the  Industrial 
Revolution.  That  revolution  was  marked  by  the  change  from 
hand  labor  to  machine  labor.  At  first  the  partnership  was 
employed  as  a  means  of  obtaining  the  larger  capital  demanded 
by  the  new  industrial  methods.  But  the  age  of  big  business 
that  followed  the  Civil  War  demanded  an  immense  amount  of 
capital,  more  than  even  wealthy  partners  could  supply;  and 
hence  the  corporation  gradually  came  into  use  for  large  industrial 
enterprises.  The  corporation  secures  large  amounts  of  capital  by 
dividing  its  stock  into  many  small  shares.  These  shares  are 
sold  to  numerous  individuals  who,  by  their  purchase,  become 
stockholders  in  the  corporation.  The  control  of  the  corpora- 
tion is  vested  in  a  small  board  of  directors  elected  by  the 
stockholders,  and  having  power  to  act  for  them  in  most  cases. 

Combinations  of  Capital.  As  the  corporations  grew  larger 
and  stronger,  they  became  eager  to  buy  out  or  drive  out  their 
smaller  rivals,  whose  competition  often  interfered  with  their 
control  of  the  market.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  formed  a 
combination  of  oil  refineries  in  1882,  and  its  example  was  soon 
followed  by  the  Sugar  Trust,  the  Whisky  Trust,  and  many 
others.  By  uniting  all  the  large  companies  in  one  line  of  pro- 
duction into  a  single  great  combination  or  "  trust,"  many  advan- 
tages were  gained.  Before  the  Sugar  Trust  was  formed,  about 
forty  sugar  refineries  were  in  operation,  but  none  of  them  could 
work  to  their  full  capacity  ;  and  as  a  result  of  keen  competition, 
eighteen  of  them  went  into  bankruptcy.  The  trust  was  formed, 
and  it  promptly  shut  down  several  of  the  refineries  which  it  had 

501 


502      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

bought.  It  then  ran  the  rest  to  their  full  capacity  all  the  time, 
and  in  this  way  made  a  large  saving. 

Large  combinations  are  also  able  to  make  a  saving  in  the 
matter  of  freight  charges.  For  example,  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  with  its  large  refineries  at  Bayonne,  New  Jersey,  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  others  near  Chicago,  has  a  great 
advantage  over  its  rivals  that  have  but  a  single  refinery  from 
which  to  ship  all  orders  both  east  and  west.  Again,  manu- 
facturing establishments  are  often  embarrassed  by  the  difficulty 
of  securing  a  supply  of  raw  materials  at  the  exact  time  needed, 
and  in  the  proper  quantity  and  quality.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  producers  of  raw  material  are  sometimes  unable  to  secure 
a  market  for  their  product.  Hence  many  corporations  own  or 
control  companies  which  produce  the  raw  materials  that  they 
use.  For  example,  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  with 
its  own  ore  mines  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior ;  its  fleet  of  boats 
for  carrying  the  ore  down  the  lakes ;  its  own  railroad,  the 
Bessemer  and  Lake  Erie,  for  transporting  ore  from  Lake  Erie 
to  the  Pittsburgh  district ;  and  with  its  own  coal  mines  for 
producing  coke  and  steam  coal,  —  controls  not  only  the  sources 
of  its  raw  materials,  but  also  the  transportation  of  these  mate- 
rials to  the  point  of  use. 

Another  example,  typical  of  the  moderate-size  corporations, 
is  the  Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Company,  which  owns  coal  mines 
to  supply  its  fuel,  chemical  plants  to  furnish  the  materials 
needed  in  making  glass,  besides  a  dozen  widely  distributed 
plants  for  the  manufacture  of  its  finished  product.  A  com- 
bination of  this  character  has  great  advantages  over  a  single 
factory  which  must  buy  its  raw  materials  in  an  uncertain  market ; 
and  such  combinations  are  not  only  legitimate,  but  are  im- 
perative to  large-scale  production. 

The  Trusts  and  the  Public.  If  the  public  could  receive  the 
benefit  of  these  savings,  combinations  would  be  an  unmixed 
blessing ;  but  if  the  savings  go  to  pay  large  dividends  instead 
of  lowering  prices,  then  the  consumer  is  not  benefited.  The 
danger  in  the  case  of  large  combinations  is  that  of  monopoly ; 
for  with  competition  destroyed,  the  trust  or  combination  is  able 


Til?]   AGE   OF  BIG   BUSINESS  503 

to  fix  the  price  to  the  consumer.  Then  too,  the  large  com- 
binations have  at  times  used  unfair  and  illegal  methods  in 
crushing  out  their  smaller  competitors.  For  example,  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  was  able  for  many  years  to  secure  lower 
freight  rates  from  the  railroads  than  those  paid  by  its  com- 
petitors. 

At  length  it  became  necessary  to  regulate  the  trusts  by  law 
in  order  to  protect  independent  producers  from  unfair  methods  -  S; 
of  competition,  and  to  guard  consumers  against  the  dangers  of 
monopoly  prices.  State  after  state  tried  to  curb  the  power 
of  the  trusts,  but  these  state  laws  proved  ineffective.  This  was 
partly  due  to  the  difficulty  of  the  problem,  partly  to  the  fact 
that  each  state  could  regulate  only  the  business  which  the 
corporation  carried  on  within  its  own  borders.  So  in  1890, 
Congress  tried  to  solve  the  problem  by  passing  the  Sherman 
Anti-Trust  Act.  This  law  made  illegal  all  trusts  or  combina- 
tions which  aim  to  secure  a  monopoly,  as  well  as  any  agreement 
in  restraint  of  interstate  or  foreign  trade.  The  Sherman  Act 
proved  almost  as  ineffective  as  the  measures  passed  by  the 
states ;  for  although  there  were  many  prosecutions,  it  was 
impossible  to  prevent  the  movement  toward  combination. 

In  1914,  Congress  again  tried  to  solve  the  problem  by  pro- 
viding for  a  Federal  Trade  Commission  of  five  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  This  Commission  is  to  supervise  the 
activities  of  large  corporations  so  as  to  prevent  unfair  competi- 
tion. The  Clayton  Anti-Trust  Law,  also  passed  in  1914,  seeks 
to  check  monopoly  by  naming  the  particular  acts  which  are  in 
restraint  of  trade,  and  therefore  illegal. 

Railway  Combinations.  In  the  railway  as  in  the  industrial 
world,  combination  was  the  rule  after  the  Civil  War.  Many 
new  lines  were  being  built,  and  many  of  the  smaller  roads  were 
combined  into  larger  units.  For  example,  the  five  lines  between 
Buffalo  and  Chicago  along  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie  were 
united  to  form  the  "  Lake  Shore,"  now  a  part  of  the  New  York 
Central  system.  This  combination  of  the  smaller  roads  was  at 
first  opposed  by  the  public  ;  but  it  was  the  natural  result  of  the 
wasteful  competition  that  had  prevailed  in  the  railway  world. 


rl 


504      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

In  many  cases  this  excessive  competition  had  proved  injurious 
both  to  the  roads  and  to  the  communities  which  they  served. 
Between  two  points  with  a  single  line  of  railroad,  rates  were 
often  exorbitant ;  but  if  competing  lines  connected  two  cities, 
the  rates  were  sometimes  below  cost.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
railways  compensated  themselves  by  heavy  charges  between 
points  where  there  was  no  competition.  Not  only  did  the  rail- 
roads discriminate  between  localities,  but  lower  rates  were  often 
granted  to  favored  shippers,  thus  making  possible  the  creation 
of  monopolies  in  certain  industries. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887.  Both  the  shippers 
and  the  public  at  last  demanded  that  the  government  should  take 
steps  to  regulate  the  railway  traffic.  Relief  was  first  sought 
from  the  state  governments,  many  of  which  established  railway 
commissions,  with  power  to  fix  maximum  rates.  But  regulation 
by  any  state  could  apply  only  to  the  business  wholly  within  its 
own  boundaries ;  whereas  two  thirds  of  the  revenue  of  the  rail- 
roads was  derived  from  interstate  traffic,  or  that  between  dif- 
ferent states. 

Unless  the  federal  government  should  take  the  matter  in 
hand,  it  was  plain  that  there  could  be  no  effective  control  of  the 
railroads.  Accordingly,  Congress  passed  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Act  of  1887.  This  measure  prohibits  charges  which 
favor  certain  individuals  or  localities ;  it  requires  the  railroads 
to  publish  their  rates  for  carrying  passengers  and  freight,  and 
forbids  changes  in  rates  except  with  the  approval  of  the  Com- 
mission. To  enforce  its  provisions,  the  President  appoints  an 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  of  nine  members.  This 
Commission  has  power  to  require  reports  as  to  the  operation  of 
railroads,  to  hear  complaints,  to  summon  witnesses,  to  make 
investigations,  and  under  the  Hepburn  Act  of  1906,  to  fix 
maximum  rates.  The  Commission  may  forbid  railroads  to 
continue  actions  which  it  deems  illegal,  and  may  establish  max- 
imum rates  by  which  the  roads  are  bound  ;  but  its  decisions  are 
not  final,  being  subject  to  review  by  the  courts. 

How  Combinations  of  Capital  Affect  the  Laborer.  The 
movement  toward  the  control  of  industry  by  large  corporations 


THE  AGE  OF  BIG  BUSINESS 


505 


had  far-reaching  results  on  the  position  of  the  workers.  The 
personal  relation  that  had  existed  between  the  owner  of  a  small 
manufacturing  concern  and  his  workmen  was  now  completely 
destroyed.  The  stockholders  in  the  corporation  had  no  first- 
hand information  about  factory  conditions,  but  they  were 
anxious  for  large  dividends ;  while  the  directors  and  managers 
usually  took  slight  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  their 
laborers.  The  very  size  of 
the  large  corporations  was  a 
menace  to  the  workmen ; 
for  the  rate  of  wages,  as 
well  as  the  price  to  the  con- 
sumer, was  no  longer  con- 
trolled by  free  competition. 
Disputes  between  labor  and 
capital  became  more  fre- 
quent and  more  violent ; 
and  the  only  recourse  of  the 
laborers  was  to  combine, 
as  the  capitalists  themselves 
had  done. 

Labor  Unions  and  Fac- 
tory Laws.  Small  labor 
unions  had  existed  before 
the  Civil  War,  but  they 
were  not  combined  into  a  single  organization.  An  attempt  was 
made  soon  after  the  war  to  unite  all  the  laborers  of  the  country 
in  an  order  called  the  Knights  of  Labor.  A  larger  organization 
was  formed  in  1881,  known  as  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 
This  is  a  combination  of  the  labor  unions  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada ;  and  under  the  presidency  of  Samuel  Gompers,  it  has  be- 
come a  powerful  agency  for  the  promotion  of  labor  interests. 
The  object  of  labor  unions  is  to  better  the  condition  of  the 
workers,  to  secure  higher  wages,  and  shorter  hours  of  work. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  factory  system,  men  worked  from 
fourteen   to  sixteen   hours   a  day.     At   present   the   average 


Samuel  Gompers 

Through  his  effort  has  come  much  of  the 
legislation  uplifting  labor  and  improving 
workingmen's  social  conditions. 


506      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

working  day  is  about  nine  hours,  and  the  goal  of  the  eight-hour 
day  seems  about  to  be  realized. 

In  many  other  ways,  labor  conditions  have  been  improved. 
Nearly  every  state  has  factory  laws,  which  are  enforced  by 
inspectors  who  travel  over  the  district.  Factory  laws  have 
three  principal  objects.  First,  the  protection  of  the  health  of 
employees,  by  securing  proper  ventilation,  lighting,  and  good 
sanitary  conditions  in  each  factory  or  workshop.  Second,  the 
prevention  of  accidents,  by  requiring  guards  on  dangerous 
machinery  and  elevators;  also  by  requiring  the  inspection  of 
boilers,  and  the  construction  of  suitable  exits  and  fire  escapes. 
Third,  the  regulation  of  the  conditions  of  employment,  especially 
in  the  case  of  women  and  children,  by  restricting  the  hours  of 
labor,  prohibiting  night  work,  and  forbidding  the  employment  of 
children  under  a  certain  age,  usually  fourteen  or  sixteen  years. 
Within  recent  years,  many  states  have  passed  Workmen's 
Compensation  Acts,  under  which  laborers  who  are  injured  may 
receive  compensation  without  bringing  suit  in  the  courts  for 
damages.  These  laws  are  in  the  interest  of  the  public  as  well 
as  the  laborers ;  for  the  welfare  of  the  state  depends  upon  the 
welfare  of  its  workers. 

Employers'  Associations  and  Welfare  Work.  The  organiza- 
tion of  strong  labor  unions  led  in  turn  to  the  formation  of 
employers'  associations,  to  resist  the  increasing  demands  of  the 
laborers.  A  National  Association  of  Manufacturers  was  formed 
in  1893,  which  included  employers  in  all  parts  of  the  country ; 
and  a  later  organization,  known  as  the  Citizens'  Industrial 
Association,  appeared  in  1903.  This  organization  is  made  up  of 
national,  district,  and  local  associations  of  employers,  just  as 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor  is  made  up  of  national, 
district,  and  city  labor  unions.  The  object  of  these  employers' 
associations  is  to  protect  the  interests  of  individual  members,  to 
resist  unfair  demands  and  methods  on  the  part  of  labor,  and 
to  secure  cooperation  among  employers  in  case  of  strikes. 

Instead  of  seeking  to  resist  the  growing  demands  of  labor, 
other  employers  have  tried  to  improve  labor  conditions  by 
means  of  welfare  work  among  their  employees.     Many  em- 


THE   AGE   OF  BIG   BUSINESS  507 

ployers  have  provided  night  schools  for  their  workmen,  besides 
parks  and  playgrounds  as  recreation  centers,  together  with  free 
medical  attendance,  accident  insurance,  and  old  age  pensions. 
Reading-rooms,  baths,  and  public  dining-rooms  are  now  often 
included  in  model  factories. 

The  Ford  Automobile  Company  of  Detroit  has  introduced  a 
still  different  plan  for  its  army  of  workers.  The  Ford  plan  is  not 
to  build  libraries,  gymnasiums,  and  lunch  rooms  for  the  employ- 
ees, but  instead  to  give  them  the  money  to  do  things  for  them- 
selves in  a  way  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  each  individual. 
In  1914  the  Ford  Company  reduced  its  hours  of  labor  from  nine 
to  eight,  established  a  minimum  wage  of  five  dollars  a  day,  and 
inaugurated  a  profit-sharing  plan  under  which  workers  of  good 
character  and  habits  received  five,  six,  and  seven  dollars  a  day. 
The  first  year's  trial  of  the  new  plan  increased  the  efficiency 
of  the  Ford  shops  by  nearly  twenty  per  cent.  After  two  years 
of  profit  sharing,  the  men  had  increased  their  deposits  in  savings 
banks  by  $5,000,000,  their  life  insurance  by  $12,000,000,  and 
their  investment  in  homes  by  nearly  $7,000,000. 

Strikes  and  Industrial  Unrest.  The  strike  is  the  most  power- 
ful weapon  employed  by  laborers  to  enforce  their  demands. 
From  1877  to  1905  there  were  thirty-six  thousand  strikes  in  the 
United  States,  involving  nearly  nine  million  workers.  Usually 
these  strikes  were  to  secure  recognition  of  the  unions,  better  pay 
or  shorter  hours  for  the  workers,  or  to  prevent  a  decrease  in 
wages. 

In  1877  occurred  the  greatest  strike  which  the  country  had 
known  up  to  that  time.  It  began  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad,  the  immediate  cause  being  a  ten  per  cent  cut  in  wages. 
The  strike  spread  to  the  lines  of  the  Pennsylvania  when  that 
company  ordered  all  freight  trains  run  as  double-headers,  so  as 
to  dispense  with  the  services  of  one  half  of  its  men.  When  the 
railroads  attempted  to  run  trains  with  new  crews  in  place  of  the 
strikers,  serious  riots  occurred.  The  strikers  were  determined 
that  their  places  should  not  be  filled  by  non-union  men.  For 
several  days  the  city  of  Pittsburgh  was  in  the  hands  of  a  mob 
that  destroyed  ten  million  dollars'  worth  of  railroad  property. 


J 

508      THE   UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

Locomotives,  cars,  round-houses,  and  freight-depots  were 
burned  ;  the  state  militia  failed  to  put  down  the  rioters,  and  not 
until  the  President  sent  federal  troops  to  the  city  was  order 
restored.  The  courts  afterwards  held  that  Allegheny  County 
was  liable  to  the  railroad  company  for  the  property  destroyed. 
This  decision  made  it  clear  that  the  public,  as  well  as  em- 
ployers and  workmen,  has  a  vital  interest  in  labor  disputes.. 

Industrial  Unrest  —  Anarchy  in  Chicago.  The  entire  period 
from  1876  to  1896  was  one  of  industrial  unrest  and  agitation. 
Capital  and  labor  were  arrayed  against  one  another  as  never 
before  in  our  history,  and  strikes  occurred  on  a  much  larger  scale 
now  that  labor,  as  well  as  capital,  was  better  organized.  The 
open  warfare  between  labor  and  capital  broke  out  with  renewed 
violence  in  1886 ;  and  from  the  shipyards  of  Maine  to  the  rail- 
ways in  Texas  and  the  Far  West,  great  strikes  occurred  in  every 
branch  of  industry. 

Chicago  and  St.  Louis  were  the  storm  centers,  and  in  both  cities 
there  was  violence  and  bloodshed.  In  Chicago,  fifty  thousand 
laborers  went  on  strike  to  enforce  their  demand  for  an  eight- 
hour  day.  A  band  of  anarchists,  men  opposed  to  government, 
of  any  kind,  thought  this  a  favorable  time  to  put  their  theories 
into  practice.  These  anarchists  were  for  the  most  part  for- 
eigners driven  out  of  Europe,  who  now  planned  to  attack  the; 
government  under  which  they  found  refuge.  They  had  no; 
connection  with  the  strikers,  but  hoped  to  win  their  support. 
On  May  4,  1896,  an  anarchist  leader  addressed  a  mass  meeting 
of  workingmen  in  Haymarket  Square.  In  the  midst  of  his  wild 
harangue,  a  battalion  of  police  broke  up  the  meeting  and  placed 
him  under  arrest.  A  moment  later  a  bomb  was  hurled  into  the 
ranks  of  the  police,  killing  seven  men  and  wounding  sixty  others. 
Of  the  ringleaders  in  this  outrage,  four  were  hanged  after  a  fair 
trial,  and  two  were  sentenced  to  prison  for  life.  It  was  the  first 
time  that  the  cowardly  anarchists  had  tried  their  methods  in 
America. 

The  Railway  Strike  of  1894.  The  great  railway  strike  of 
1894  began  when  three  thousand  workmen  in  the  car  shops  of 
the   Pullman    Company   demanded   better   wages.     Most    of 


THE  AGE   OF  BIG  BUSINESS  509 

the  men  were  members  of  the  American  Railway  Union,  an 
association  of  railway  employees.  This  powerful  organization 
ordered  a  sympathetic  strike ;  that  is,  directed  its  members  not 
to  handle  any  train  on  which  there  were  Pullman  cars.  The 
strike  spread  rapidly,  and  soon  nearly  every  railroad  from 
Chicago  to  San  Francisco  was  tied  up.  Serious  riots  broke 
out  in  Chicago,  where  a  large  amount  of  railway  property  was 
burned ;  and  President  Cleveland  finally  ordered  federal  troops 
into  Illinois  to  prevent  further  interference  with  the  mails  and 
with  interstate  commerce.  Several  officers  of  the  American 
Railway  Union  were  arrested  for  disobeying  an  injunction,  or 
order  of  the  federal  court,  warning  them  not  to  interfere  with 
the  railroads.  Their  arrest,  followed  by  the  moving  of  trains 
under  the  protection  of  regular  troops,  brought  the  strike  to  an 
end.  It  had  cost  the  railroads  in  loss  of  earnings  and  destruc- 
tion of  property  nearly  $6,000,000 ;  the  strikers  lost  $2,000,000 
in  wages,  while  the  loss  to  the  country  at  large  was  estimated 
at  $80,000,000. 

Arbitration  of  Industrial  Disputes.  Several  states  have  tried 
to  prevent  strikes  and  lockouts  by  providing  for  boards  of 
arbitration.  These  boards  usually  consist  of  three  or  five 
members  appointed  by  the  governor,  employers  and  employees 
being  equally  represented.  When  labor  difficulties  arise,  it  is 
their  duty  to  investigate  the  situation,  and  if  possible  bring 
about  a  settlement.  They  may  arbitrate  the  controversy 
provided  both  parties  consent,  but  have  no  power  to  compel 
arbitration  or  to  enforce  their  award.  Congress  has  also  passed 
an  arbitration  act  for  railroads  and  their  employees.  The 
President  appoints  a  board  of  mediation,  which  has  succeeded 
in  settling  several  railroad  controversies,  including  the  serious 
strikes  threatened  in  1913  and  again  in  1914.  Because  of  the 
growing  importance  of  labor  interests,  the  Department  of 
Labor  was  organized  as  a  separate  executive  department  in 
1913 ;  and  the  Secretary  of  Labor  became  a  member  of  the 
President's  Cabinet.  A  division  of  conciliation  in  this  de- 
partment has  already  had  considerable  success  in  preventing 
strikes. 


-°l 


510      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

The  Socialist  Movement.  The  spirit  of  unrest  in  the  labor 
world  made  many  converts  to  the  economic  doctrine  called 
socialism.  The  Socialists  believe  that  land  should  be  owned 
in  common,  and  that  government  should  own  and  operate  the 
railroads,  telegraph  lines,  grain  elevators,  and  all  large-scale 
industries.  Capitalists  are  to  be  eliminated  entirely  under 
their  scheme  of  production ;  for  the  government  is  to  own  and 
control  all  the  tools  and  plants  of  industry,  and  direct  all 
occupations,  the  workers  being  rewarded  according  to  their 
needs.  Several  political  parties  have  been  organized  to  carry 
out  these  theories.  The  strongest  of  these  is  the  Social  Dem- 
ocratic or  Socialist  party,  formed  in  1898  by  Eugene  V. 
Debs  and  his  supporters.  The  Socialists  have  won  some 
success  in  local  elections,  while  in  presidential  contests  their 
largest  vote  was  in  1912,  when  their  ticket  received  901,873 
votes. 

Organized  labor  has  not  generally  adopted  the  principles  of 
socialism.  Most  American  workingmen  accept  the  common- 
sense  idea  that  industry  requires  employers  as  well  as  employees, 
capital  as  well  as  labor.  When  the  United  States  entered 
the  World  War  in  1917,  many  prominent  Socialists  left  the 
ranks  of  their  party  because  of  its  disloyal  and  pro-German 
attitude.  Among  these  were  such  leaders  as  Charles  Edward 
Russell  and  Allan  L.  Benson,  the  Socialist  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent in  1916. 


REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  ch.  XI. 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXV. 
Dewey,  D.  R.,  National  Problems,  chs.  Ill,  XII,  XVIII. 
Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Interstate  Commerce  Act,  pp.  581-590. 
Morse,  E.  W.,  Causes  and  Effects  in  American  History,  ch.  XIX. 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  chs.  X,  XVIII,  XIX. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  National  Development,  ch.  V. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  XVII. 


THE   AGE   OF  BIG   BUSINESS  511 


SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Trusts.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States, 
ch.  XXIX  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United 
States,  ch.  XXXI  ;  Jenks,  J.  W.,  The  Trust  Problem,  chs.  IV,  VII, 
IX-XI  ;  McLaughlin,  A.  C,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  Amer- 
ican Nation,  chs.  LIX-LX. 

2.  Labor  Problems  and  Organizations.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic 
History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXII  ;  Callender,  G.  S.,  Eco- 
nomic History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XIV  ;  McLaughlin,  A.  C, 
Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  ch.  LXI  ;  Paxson, 
F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  ch.  VII. 


CHAPTER  XLII 
POLITICAL  AND   ECONOMIC   REFORMS 

The  Election  and  Assassination  of  Garfield.  The  close 
presidential  contest  of  1876  convinced  the  Republicans  that  only 
a  strong  candidate  could  win  the  election  of  1880.  In  the 
Republican  convention  at  Chicago,  the  friends  of  ex-President 

Grant  attempted  to  break 
the  third  term  tradition 
by  nominating  the  famous 
general  who  had  twice  led 
his  party  to  victory.  The 
Grant  men  failed  to  secure 
a  majority  of  the  delegates  ; 
and  after  a  long  contest,  the 
convention  named  James  A. 
Garfield  of  Ohio  for  Presi- 
dent, and  Chester  A.  Arthur 
of  New  York  for  Vice 
President.  The  Democrats 
chose  for  their  standard- 
bearer  General  Winfield  S. 
Hancock,  one  of  the  heroes 
James  A".  Garfield  of  the  Union  army  at  Gettys- 

burg. The  Republicans  won  the  election,  but  only  four  months 
after  his  inauguration,  President  Garfield  was  shot  by  a  half- 
crazed  office  seeker.  He  died  on  September  19,  1881,  Vice 
President  Arthur  then  being  sworn  in  as  President. 

Civil  Service  Reform.  The  assassination  of  President  Gar- 
field was  indirectly  due  to  a  party  quarrel  over  the  appointment 
of  a  collector  of  customs  for  the  port  of  New  York ;  and  this 

512 


POLITICAL  AND   ECONOMIC   REFORMS 


513 


tragedy  helped  to  bring  about  a  much-needed  reform  in  our 
civil  service.  Since  the  time  of  President  Jackson,  the  political 
offices  within  the  gift  of  the  government  had  been  looked  upon 
as  rewards  for  faithful  party  workers.  The  dismissal  of  a  host  of 
officials  at  the  beginning  of  each  new  administration  demoralized 
the  public  service ;  for  under  this  Spoils  System,  party  loyalty 
rather  than  ability  was  the  basis  for  appointment  to  office. 

After  a  century's  experi- 
ence with  the  Spoils  System, 
public  opinion  compelled  a 
change ;  and  in  1883  Con- 
gress passed  the  Civil  Serv- 
ice Act.  This  law  pro- 
vides that  appointment  to 
office,  as  well  as  tenure  and 
promotion,  shall  depend 
upon  efficiency  rather  than 
upon  party  service.  A 
Civil  Service  Commission  of 
three  members  'conducts 
competitive  examinations 
for  all  positions  in  the  classi- 
fied service.  Appointments 
are  made  from  those  ap- 
plicants whose  papers   are 

graded  highest  on  the  civil  service  examination  ;  and  the  persons 
appointed  cannot  be  removed  except  for  inefficiency. 

During  the  administration  of  President  Arthur,  15,000 
federal  officers  were  placed  under  the  new  civil  service  rules. 
President  Cleveland  added  55,000  and  President  Roosevelt 
87,000  more.  At  the  present  time,  about  three  fourths  of  the 
entire  number  of  federal  employees  are  under  civil  service  rules. 
The  merit  system  of  appointment  has  greatly  improved  the 
public  service ;  and  a  similar  plan  has  been  adopted  in  many 
cities,  and  by  several  state  governments. 

The  Immigration  Problem.  Since  the  founding  of  our 
government,  more  than  twenty-five   million  immigrants  have 


Chester  A.  Arthur 


6* 


514      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

come  to  the  United  States,  and  to-day  it  is  estimated  that  there 
are  thirteen  million  persons  of  foreign  birth  living  here.  In  the 
single  year  of  1905,  one  million  immigrants  landed  on  our  shores, 
or  more  than  all  the  colonists  who  came  to  America  from  the 
first  landing  at  Jamestown  until  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. Our  traditional  policy  has  always  been  to  welcome  the 
honest  men  and  women  of  other  lands  who  wish  to  come  here ; 
and  our  country's  wonderful  development  would  have  been 

impossible  without  the  brain 


Jisa*    I 


and  muscle  of  the  millions 
of  immigrants  who  have 
turned  to  America  as  the 
land  of  opportunity. 

At  times  our  hospitality 
has  been  abused  ;  and  Euro- 
pean governments  have  been 
known  to  use  the  United 
States  as  a  dumping  ground 
for  convicts,  paupers,  an- 
archists, and  other  unde- 
sirable citizens.  Hence  in 
1882  Congress  passed  a  law 
excluding  from  this  country 
the  pauper,  criminal,  and 
insane  classes  of  aliens,  also 
anarchists,  persons  suffering 
from  contagious  disease,  and  Chinese  laborers.  A  treaty  was 
made  with  Japan  in  1907,  by  which  Japanese  laborers  were  also 
excluded. 

Immigrants  from  Southern  Europe.  Beginning  about  1880 
there  has  been  a  marked  change  in  the  source  of  our  immigration. 
Before  that  time  the  great  majority  of  immigrants  came  from 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian  countries; 
while  only  a  small  proportion  came  from  the  peoples  of  southern 
and  eastern  Europe.  But  since  1880  the  immigration  from 
southeastern  Europe  has  greatly  increased,  while  that  from 
northern  Europe  has  relatively  declined. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Immigrants  Landing  at  Ellis  Island 


POLITICAL  AND   ECONOMIC   REFORMS 


515 


With  this  change  in  the  source  of  our  immigration,  there  has 
been  a  corresponding  change  in  the  character  of  the  immigrants 
themselves.  The  immigrants  from  northern  Europe  were  better 
educated,  more  familiar  with  representative  government, 
and  in  many  cases  were  skilled  artisans  and  mechanics.  In 
contrast  with  them,  a  large  proportion  of  the  immigrants  from 
southeastern  Europe  are  illiterate,  or  unable  to  read  and  write 
their  own  language ;  and  nearly  all  are  unskilled  workers.  The 
demand  for  the  exclusion 
of  illiterate  immigrants  led 
Congress  on  three  occasions 
to  pass  bills  debarring  im- 
migrants who  could  not 
read,  but  each  time  the 
measure  was  vetoed  by  the 
President.  At  last  in  1916, 
it  was  possible  to  secure  the 
necessary  votes  in  Congress 
to  pass  this  measure  over 
the  President's  veto ;  so 
that  immigrants  who  are 
unable  to  read  their  own 
language  are  now  excluded 
from  the  United  States. 

The  Demand  for  Tariff 
Reform.  Throughout  the 
Civil  War,  high  tariff  duties 
were  levied  in  order  to  raise  revenue,  and  also  to  protect  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  who  were  paying  internal  revenue  taxes  on 
their  products.  The  high  tariff  rates  were  continued  after  the 
war,  the  surplus  revenue  being  used  to  reduce  the  national  debt. 
The  Republican  party  favored  the  policy  of  protection,  but 
many  Democrats  began  to  urge  a  reduction  in  tariff  duties. 
They  pointed  out  that  a  large  surplus  was  piling  up  in  the 
national  treasury,  and  said  that  the  high  tariff  duties  promoted 
the  growth  of  large  corporations  by  helping  them  secure  a 
monopoly  of  the  domestic  market. 


James  G.  Blaine 

From  a  photograph  in  the  Brady  Collec- 
tion, the  War  Department,   Washington. 


7 


516      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

The  tariff  question  became  a  leading  issue  in  the  presidential 
campaign  of  1884.  The  Democrats  maintained  that  only  ar- 
ticles of  luxury  should  be  heavily  taxed,  while  articles  of  neces- 
sity ought  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty.  Their  presidential 
candidate  was  Grover  Cleveland,  who  had  made  a  splendid 
record  as  governor  of  New  York.  The  Republicans  nominated 
James  G.  Blaine,  who  had  served  as  Speaker  of  the  House  of 

Representatives,  as  Senator 
from  Maine,  and  as  Secre- 
tary of  State  under  Presi- 
dent Garfield.  A  new  re- 
form movement  now  sprang 
up  in  the  ranks  of  the  Re- 
publicans, much  like  that 
in  the  campaign  of  1872. 
These  independent  Repub- 
licans, who  were  promptly 
nicknamed  "Mugwumps," 
refused  to  support  Blaine 
because  they  did  not  ap- 
prove of  his  political  record. 
The  campaign  that  followed 
was  one  of  the  most  exciting 
in  our  history  ;  and  for  the 
first  time  since  the  Civil 
War,  the  Democrats  won  the  victory.  But  they  could  not  carry 
out  their  campaign  promise  to  lower  the  tariff  rates,  since  the 
Senate  was  Republican. 

The  tariff  question  again  became  the  chief  issue  in  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1888,  but  this  time  President  Cleveland  was 
defeated  by  his  Republican  opponent,  Benjamin  Harrison  of 
Indiana.  The  Republicans  also  secured  control  of  both  houses 
of  Congress,  which  promptly  passed  the  McKinley  Tariff  Act  of 
1890.  This  law.  received  its  name  from  William  McKinley  of 
Ohio,  who  was  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  in 
the  House  of  Representatives.  The  new  act  was  a  protective 
measure  which  made  the  duties  even  higher  than  during  the 


Benjamin  Harrison 


POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  REFORMS  517 

war.  The  Republicans  had  answered  the  challenge  of  the 
Democrats  to  reduce  the  tariff  by  raising  it  higher  than  ever 
before. 

The  Wilson  Tariff  Law,  1894.  The  growing  demand  for 
lower  tariff  rates  carried  the  Democratic  party  to  a  sweeping 
victory  in  the  presidential  contest  of  1892,  and  Grover  Cleveland 
became  President  for  a  second  term.  The  House  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means  drew  up  the  Wilson  Tariff  Bill,  which  as 
finally  amended  in  the  Senate  made  only  slight  reductions  in 
the  tariff  rates.  President  Cleveland  denounced  the  measure 
as  "  a  record  of  party  perfidy  and  dishonor  "  ;  but  believing  it 
better  than  the  McKinley  Tariff,  permitted  the  bill  to  become  a 
law  without  his  signature.  Since  import  duties  were  reduced, 
it  was  necessary  to  provide  some  other  means  of  raising  revenue. 
Accordingly,  the  Wilson  law  levied  a  tax  of  two  per  cent  on  all 
incomes  above  $4000.  The  Supreme  Court  held  this  tax  un- 
constitutional, so  that  it  could  not  be  collected ;  and  without 
the  income  tax,  the  Wilson  Act  did  not  yield  enough  revenue  to 
run  the  government. 

Later  Tariff  Acts.  The  success  of  the  Republicans  in  the 
presidential  election  of  1896  led  to  another  revision  of  tariff  rates. 
Congress  passed  the  Dingley  Tariff  Law,  which  restored  the 
duties  of  the  earlier  McKinley  Act,  and  in  some  cases  made  them 
even  higher.  The  tariff  agitation  that  had  prevailed  for  fifteen 
years  now  began  to  subside.  The  new  law  remained  on  the 
statute  books  for  twelve  years,  during  a  period  of  great  pros- 
perity. The  Republicans  passed  another  high  tariff  measure 
in  1909,  but  after  the  Democratic  victory  in  1912,  the  rates  were 
reduced  by  the  Underwood  Tariff  Act. 

Frequent  revision  of  tariff  duties  tends  to  unsettle  the  business 
of  the  country,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  Congress  has  insisted 
on  treating  the  tariff  as  a  political  question,  instead  of  as  a 
business  matter.  A  better  method  was  made  possible  in  1916, 
when  Congress  created  a  Tariff  Commission  to  study  this  subject 
and  report  on  needed  changes  in  the  rates. 

The  Presidential  Succession  Act.  In  the  year  1886,  Congress 
passed  an  important  law  known  as  the  Presidential  Succession 


518      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

Act.  This  provides  that  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of 
both  President  and  Vice  President,  the  office  of  President  shall 
be  filled  by  the  Secretary  of  State.  If  that  officer  does  not 
possess  the  qualifications  required  by  the  Constitution  for 
President,  then  the  succession  passes  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  and  so  on  down  through  the  Cabinet,  the  first  seven 
members  being  eligible  in  the  order  in  which  the  departments 
were  created.  Under  the  original  law  passed  in  1792,  the 
President  pro  tern  of  the  Senate  succeeded  the  Vice  President, 
then  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  —  a  new 
presidential  election  to  follow  within  two  months.  The  new 
law  makes  it  certain  that  the  succession  shall  pass  to  a  man  of 
the  same  political  party  as  the  President. 

The  Panic  of  1873.  About  once  every  twenty  years,  begin- 
ning with  1819,  our  country  has  suffered  from  a  money  panic  or 
period  of  severe  hard  times.  Next  to  the  panic  of  1837,  that  of 
1873  was  the  worst  in  our  history.  It  began  with  the  failure 
of  Jay  Cooke  and  Company,  a  large  banking  firm  in  Philadelphia. 
The  chief  cause  of  the  trouble  was  excessive  railroad  building, 
together  with  wild  speculation  in  western  lands.  During  the 
four  years  before  1873,  twenty-four  thousand  miles  of  railway 
lines  were  built.  These  roads  were  of  immense  service  in 
opening  up  the  West ;  but  in  many  cases  their  earnings  were  not 
large  enough  to  pay  interest  on  the  borrowed  capital.  The 
banks  that  had  loaned  money  to  the  railroads  received  their 
bonds  in  exchange,  which  they  undertook  to  sell  to  investors. 
When  the  railroads  failed  to  pay  the  interest  on  these  bonds, 
the  banks  that  held  them  began  to  fail,  while  thousands  of 
private  investors  saw  their  securities  shrink  in  value. 

The  day  after  the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  and  Company,  eighteen 
banking  firms  in  New  York  City  closed  their  doors.  Panic 
terror  then  spread  throughout  the  country.  Depositors  has- 
tened to  withdraw  their  money,  banks  were  unable  to  make 
loans  to  business  men,  and  thousands  of  failures  resulted.  Mills 
and  factories  were  everywhere  closing  down,  workingmen  were 
discharged  and  wages  reduced,  while  strikes  and  lockouts  added 
to  the  general  distress.     This  period  of  hard  times  lasted  for 


POLITICAL  AND   ECONOMIC   REFORMS  519 

five  years,  during  which  there  were  nearly  fifty  thousand  failures, 
while  three  million  men  were  out  of  employment. 

Resumption  of  Specie  Payments.  During  the  Civil  War, 
the  Union  government  issued  paper  money  in  large  quantities. 
These  notes  were  valueless  in  themselves,  but  the  government 
made  them  legal  tender ;  that  is,  declared  that  every  one  must 
accept  them  in  payments  of  debts.  There  was  no  gold  or  silver 
in  the  treasury  with  which  to  redeem  the  greenbacks,  which 
depended  for  their  value  on  the  likelihood  that  the  government 
would  some  day  redeem  them  in  coin,  or  specie.  The  war 
had  been  at  an  end  for  fourteen  years  before  the  government  was 
able  to  do  this ;  but  Congress  finally  voted  that  after  January, 
1879,  the  greenbacks  should  be  redeemed  in  gold  coin.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  John  Sherman,  accumulated  a  large 
stock  of  gold,  so  that  any  one  desiring  to  exchange  greenbacks 
for  coin  might  do  so.  But  just  as  soon  as  every  one  became 
convinced  that  the  government  could  and  would  give  gold  in 
exchange  for  notes,  nobody  cared  to  have  it.  Ever  since  this 
resumption  of  specie  payments,  the  greenbacks  have  been 
worth  one  hundred  cents  on  the  dollar. 

The  Greenback  Party.  When  the  greenbacks  were  first 
issued  in  1862,  the  intention  was  to  redeem  them  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  withdraw  them  from  circulation.  But  after  part 
of  the  greenbacks  had  been  redeemed  and  canceled,  a  strong 
protest  was  made  against  this  policy.  A  new  political  party, 
the  Greenback  party,  insisted  that  the  notes  should  not  be 
withdrawn  from  circulation,  but  should  be  reissued.  Partly 
owing  to  this  protest,  Congress  ordered  the  reissue  of  the  green- 
backs whenever  paid  into  the  treasury.  So  we  still  have  green- 
backs in  circulation  to  the  amount  of  $346,000,000,  besides 
several  other  kinds  of  paper  money.  A  gold  reserve  of  $150,- 
000,000  is  kept  on  hand  in  the  national  treasury  for  the  re- 
demption of  the  greenbacks. 

The  Question  of  Free  Silver  Coinage.  Under  the  first  coinage 
act  passed  by  Congress  in  1792,  there  was  to  be  free  coinage  of 
both  gold  and  silver.  In  other  words,  any  one  might  take  either 
metal  to  the  mints  and  have  it  coined  into  money,  which  would 


520      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A    WORLD   POWER 


then  be  legal  tender  for  all  debts.  Since  gold  is  much  more 
valuable  than  silver,  the  law  provided  that  the  silver  dollar 
should  contain  37 1|  grains  of  pure  silver,  or  fifteen  times  the 
weight  of  the  gold  dollar.  Later  the  ratio  was  changed  to  16 
to  1.  Only  a  small  amount  of  silver  was  brought  to  the  mints 
after  1840  ;  and  in  1873  Congress  passed  a  law  that  discontinued 

the  coinage  of  the  silver 
dollar,  and  made  gold  the 
sole  standard  of  value. 

This  act  attracted  little 
attention  at  the  time,  but 
in  later  years,  as  prices  fell 
sharply,  many  people  de- 
manded that  the  mints  of 
the  country  should  again  be 
opened  to  the  free  coinage 
of  silver.  They  claimed 
that  the  fall  in  prices  was 
due  to  the  scarcity  of  money 
material,  and  that  men  who 
owed  money  could  repay  it 
more  easily  if  both  gold  and 
silver  were  coined  at  the 
mints.  Free  coinage  of  sil- 
ver was  strongly  urged  by  the  new  Populist  party,  which  in- 
cluded many  farmers  who  were  receiving  low  prices  for  their 
products. 

The  Sherman  Silver  Purchase  Act.  In  an  effort  to  please  the 
friends  of  silver,  Congress  passed  the  Sherman  Silver  Purchase 
Act  of  1890.  This  law  provided  that  the  government  should  buy 
a  large  amount  of  silver  each  month,  store  it  in  the  treasury 
vaults,  and  issue  treasury  notes  equal  in  amount  to  the  value 
of  the  silver  purchased.  This  measure  led  to  a  serious  financial 
crisis  in  1892,  at  the  beginning  of  President  Cleveland's  second 
administration.  The  treasury  department  felt  obliged  to 
redeem  these  notes  in  gold,  and  at  this  critical  time,  every  one 
seemed  to  want  gold  in  exchange  for  notes.     Worst  of  all, 


Grover  Cleveland 


POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  REFORMS  521 

no  sooner  were  the  notes  redeemed  than  they  must  be  reissued, 
to  be  again  presented  for  more  gold.  Thus  the  notes  formed  an 
endless  chain,  constantly  draining  the  treasury  of  its  gold  supply. 
The  treasury  department  had  to  sell  millions  of  dollars  worth 
of  bonds  in  order  to  secure  a  supply  of  gold  with  which  to 
redeem  the  paper  notes.  Still  the  gold  flowed  out  of  the  treasury, 
until  at  last  President  Cleveland  called  a  special  session  of 
Congress,  and  urged  the  repeal  of  the  Silver  Purchase  Act. 
The  Senators  from  the  silver-mining  states  fought  bitterly  to 
prevent  this,  but  after  three  months  of  stormy  debate,  Congress 
repealed  the  law. 

The  Panic  of  1893.  Much  of  the  mischief  had  already 
been  done,  and  the  panic  of  1893  was  well  under  way.  Foreign 
investors  began  to  withdraw  their  capital,  fearing  that  our 
country  could  not  pay  its  obligations  in  gold.  The  fall  in  the 
price  of  silver  spelled  disaster  for  the  western  mining  interests  ; 
while  the  failure  of  the  corn  crop  brought  ruin  to  thousands 
of  farmers.  Manufacturers  and  business  men  could  no  longer 
obtain  loans,  credit  collapsed,  and  failure  followed  failure. 
Two  hundred  railroads  went  into  the  hands  of  receivers,  while 
the  number  of  commercial  failures  was  three  times  as  great  as 
in  1873.  In  the  large  cities,  thousands  of  men  were  out  of  work 
and  on  the  verge  of  starvation. 

The  Free  Silver  Campaign  of  1896.  At  the  close  of  President 
Cleveland's  administration,  the  country  was  still  suffering  from 
the  effects  of  the  panic.  The  Republicans  charged  that  the  hard 
times  were  due  to  the  Wilson  Tariff  Law  passed  by  the  Demo- 
crats. They  nominated  for  President  a  strong  champion  of  pro- 
tection, Governor  William  McKinley  of  Ohio,  and  declared  in 
favor  of  the  gold  standard.  The  Democrats  argued  that  the  hard 
times  were  caused,  not  by  the  tariff,  but  by  a  scarcity  of  money. 
They  demanded  that  government  should  open  its  mints  to  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1.  This 
meant  that  the  government  was  to  receive  371-J-  grains  of  silver, 
then  worth  as  bullion  or  metal  only  fifty-two  cents,  and  stamp 
it  as  one  dollar  in  money.  The  Republicans  pointed  out  that 
this  would  drive  gold  out  of  circulation,  for  people  would  pay 


522      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 


their  debts  with  the  silver  dollars,  worth  only  about  fifty  cents 
as  measured  in  gold. 

The  national  Democratic  convention  nominated  a  young 
Nebraskan,  William  Jennings  Bryan,  who  had  made  an  eloquent 
appeal  in  the  convention  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  Bryan 
was  a  wonderful  orator ;  during  the  campaign  he  traveled  eight- 
een thousand   miles,  and  made  six   hundred  speeches.      But 

his  party  was  divided  on 
the  money  question,  for 
President  Cleveland  and 
many  eastern  Democrats 
were  opposed  to  free  silver 
coinage.  At  the  polls,  the 
voters  endorsed  the  policy 
of  protection  and  rejected 
free  silver.  William  Mc- 
Kinley  became  President 
with  217  electoral  votes 
against  176  for  Bryan,  while 
the  Republicans  also  se- 
cured control  of  Congress. 

The  Gold  Standard  Act 
of  1900.  The  outbreak  of 
the  Spanish-American  War 
in  1898  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  the  country  so  fully 


William  Jennings  Bryan 

Courtesy  of  the  Baker  Art  Gallery, 
Columbus,  Ohio. 


that  there  was  no  time  for  financial  legislation  during  Presi- 
dent McKinley's  first  term.  The  Republicans  reelected  Presi- 
dent McKinley  in  1900,  and  Congress  passed  an  act  declaring 
that  the  gold  dollar  should  be  the  standard  unit  of  value. 
That  is,  gold  is  to  be  the  standard  by  which  the  prices  of  all 
commodities  are  measured.  In  keeping  gold  as  its  sole  stand- 
ard of  value,  the  United  States  followed  the  example  of  the 
leading  nations  of  the  world.  Gold  has  been  generally  chosen 
because  it  is  mined  in  less  quantities  than  silver,  and  because 
its  value  does  not  fluctuate  so  greatly.  Hence  if  prices  are  based 
on  gold,  they  will  vary  less  than  if  based  on  silver.     The  country 


POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  REFORMS  523 

has  really  been  on  a  single  gold  standard  since  1873,  so  that  the 
new  law  did  not  introduce  a  change.  It  was  only  a  definite 
announcement  that  the  gold  standard  would  be  continued,  and 
that  there  would  be  no  free  coinage  of  silver. 

The  Federal  Reserve  Act  of  1913.  The  country  passed  through 
another  severe  financial  crisis  in  1907,  and  Congress  began  to 
study  how  to  prevent  such  difficulties  in  the  future.  During 
President  Wilson's  first  administration,  an  important  law  was 
passed  which  may  accomplish  this  result.  The  Federal  Reserve 
Act  of  1913  provides  for  a  system  of  Federal  Reserve  Banks 
which  do  not  receive  deposit  from  individuals,  but  from  the 
different  banks  of  the  country.  When  money  is  scarce,  the 
reserve  banks  may  issue  notes  to  the  banks  that  belong  to  the 
system,  in  exchange  for  securities  held  by  them ;  and  the  in- 
dividual banks  can  then  loan  these  notes  out  to  borrowers.  The 
national  government  also  deposits  much  of  its  surplus  money 
with  the  reserve  banks,  instead  of  placing  it  in  the  government 
vaults  ;  and  part  of  this  money  can  be  loaned  to  banks  through- 
out the  country  on  good  security.  In  this  way  more  money  can 
be  made  available  during  hard  times,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
plan  will  put  an  end  to  our  money  panics. 


REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  chs.  X,  XII, 
XVI,  XVII. 

Bassett,  J.  SL,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XXIII,  XXIV, 
XXVI. 

Dewey,  D.  R.,  National  Problems,  chs.  II,  IV-V,  XV- XVII. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  chs. 
XXX-XXXI. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs. 
XXVIII,  XXXII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory:    Civil  Service  Act,  pp.  575-581. 

Morse,  E.  W.,  Causes  and  Effects  in  American  History,  ch.  XVIII. 

Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  chs.  IV,  XIV. 


524      THE   UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

1.  Finances  of  the  Civil  War.  Dewey,  D.  R.,  Financial  History 
of  the  United  States,  chs.  XVI-XXII  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Govern- 
ment and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  pp.  292-293. 

2.  Immigration.  Coolidge,  A.  C,  The  United  States  as  a  World 
Power,  ch.  II  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the 
United  States,  pp.  390-392  ;    Hall,  F.  F.,  Immigration,  pp.  3-13, 

36-79,  chs.  X-XIV  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  National  Ideals  Historically 
Traced  (American  Nation  Series),  ch.  Ill  ;  Latane,  J.  H.,  America 
as  a  World  Power  (American  Nation  Series),  ch.  XVII. 


REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United  People,  pp.  26-32. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship,  ch.  XVII. 


i  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

"Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,"  New  York  Harbor 

This  statue,  the  work  of  the  French  artist,  Auguste  Bartholdi  of  Colmar, 
Alsace,  was  presented  by  the  people  of  France  to  the  United  States  in  1886. 


CHAPTER   XLIII 


THE    WAR   WITH    SPAIN 

Spain's  Colonial  Policy.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Spain  was 
England's  chief  rival  in  the  struggle  for  colonial  empire  and  for 
the  world's  trade.  Spain  was  not  liberal  in  the  treatment  of 
her  colonies,  and  she  failed  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  her 
rival.  After  the  American  Revolution,  Great  Britain  adopted 
a  different  policy  toward 
her  remaining  colonies.  She 
granted  them  large  powers 
of  self-government,  and  no 
longer  tried  to  use  them 
merely  as  storehouses  for 
British  merchants  and  man- 
ufacturers. In  1867  all  of 
the  Canadian  provinces  ex- 
cept Newfoundland  were 
organized  into  a  federal 
union,  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  with  a  Parliament 
and  ministry  similar  to  that 
of  Great  Britain,  and  a 
governor-general  appointed 
by  the  crown.  The  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia  was 
organized  on  a  similar  plan 
in  1901.  But  history  taught  Spain  no  lesson.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  she  still  ruled  her  colonies  by  the 
methods  of  three  hundred  years  before.  One  by  one,  the  Span- 
ish colonies  in  Central  and  South  America  declared  their  inde- 
pendence, until  only  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  remained  out  of  all 
Spain's  New  World  empire. 

525 


William  McKinley 

Courtesy  of  the  Courtney  Studio, 
Canton,  Ohio. 


R 


I 


3 


526      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

Spain  ruled  these  islands  with  the  same  harsh  tyranny  that 
had  lost  her  great  empire.  Laws  for  Cuba  were  made  in 
Madrid ;  they  were  executed  by  a  governor-general  and  other 
Spanish  officials,  who  lived  in  Cuba  only  to  make  their  own 
fortunes  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  revenue  from  Cuba  in 
1895  was  twenty-six  million  dollars,  but  of  this  sum  only  one 
million  was  spent  for  education  and  public  works  on  the  island. 
The  remainder  went  to  support  Spain's  army  and  navy,  to  pay 
the  interest  on  her  debt,  and  to  meet  the  salaries  of  Spanish 
officials. 

Cuba  Rebels  against  Spain.  The  Cubans  rose  in  repeated 
revolts  against  Spanish  oppression ;  but  each  revolt  ended  in 
defeat  and  worse  misrule.  It  took  Spain  ten  years  to  put  down 
the  rebellion  of  1868,  and  at  its  close  she  promised  reforms  that 
were  never  carried  out.  The  Cubans  again  took  up  arms  in 
1895,  and  this  time  one  hundred  thousand  Spanish  soldiers 
could  not  crush  the  outbreak.  The  Spanish  government  then 
determined  to  starve  the  Cubans  into  submission.  General 
Weyler  ordered  the  rural  inhabitants  to  come  into  the  garrison 
towns,  where  they  were  shut  up  in  concentration  camps.  With 
no  one  left  to  cultivate  the  plantations,  the  Cuban  army  must 
surrender  or  starve.  Nearly  two  hundred  thousand  Cubans 
died  in  concentration  camps  from  starvation  and  disease,  but 
still  the  fight  for  liberty  went  on. 

Our  Country's  Interest  in  Cuba.  The  United  States  urged 
Spain  to  grant  the  reforms  demanded  by  the  Cubans,  but  Spain 
replied  that  Cuba  already  enjoyed  "  one  of  the  most  liberal 
political  systems  in  the  world."  As  a  result  of  the  rebellion 
our  trade  with  Cuba,  amounting  to  $100,000,000  each  year,  was 
destroyed,  while  American  citizens  on  the  island  lost  much  of 
their  property.  Once  more  President  McKinley  tried  to  induce 
Spain  to  make  concessions,  but  she  delayed  until  at  last  the 
Cubans  would  accept  nothing  less  than  complete  independence. 
By  the  year  1898,  the  "  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  "  had  become  a 
place  of  misery  and  starvation.  At  last  the  United  States  re- 
solved in  the  interests  of  humanity  to  make  the  cause  of  Cuba 
her  own. 


THE   WAR  WITH  SPAIN 


527 


The  Destruction  of  the  Maine.  An  event  occurred  at  this 
critical  time  which  hastened  the  conflict.  Early  in  1898  the 
battleship  Maine  entered  Havana  Harbor  to  protect  Ameri- 
can interests.  Three  weeks  later,  while  lying  peacefully  at 
anchor,  a  terrible  explosion  sank  the  ship  with  two  hundred 
and  sixty  of  her  men.  Investigation  of  the  wreck  showed  that 
the   explosion   was    probably   caused   by   a   submarine   mine. 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 


The  Maine,  March  16,  191 2 


A  commission  was  appointed  several  years  after  the  war  with  Spain  to  raise 
the  Maine  and  discover  how  it  was  sunk.  A  cofferdam  was  built  around  the 
warship,  the  hull  made  water-tight,  and  then  floated.  It  was  afterwards  towed 
out  to  sea  and  buried  with  full  naval  honors. 


It  was  impossible  to  prove  who  had  committed  the  foul  deed, 
but  the  American  people  believed  that  the  Spaniards  were 
responsible.  "  Remember  the  Maine  "  became  the  watchword 
of  the  hour,  and  the  whole  country  demanded  war.  Congress 
promptly  voted  to  expend  fifty  million  dollars  for  national 
defense. 

Our  Ultimatum  and  the  Declaration  of  War.  On  April  19, 
the  anniversary  of  Lexington,  Congress  passed  a  resolution 
declaring  that  Cuba  ought  to  be  free,  and  that  Spain   must 


528      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 


withdraw  her  forces  from  the  island.  The  President  was 
authorized  to  use  the  entire  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United 
States  to  bring  this  about.     Congress  also  declared  that  the 

United  States  did  not  intend 
to  annex  Cuba,  but  would 
leave  the  government  of  the 
island  to  its  people.  Spain 
was  given  five  days  in  which 
to  answer  these  resolutions, 
which  were  virtually  an  ulti- 
matum. Her  reply  was  to 
recall  the  Spanish  minister 
from  Washington,  and  to 
give  our  minister  at  Madrid 
his  passports.  On  April  25, 
Congress  voted  that  war 
existed  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain.  It  was  de- 
cided to  borrow  $200,000,000 
by  issuing  bonds,  also  to 
raise  revenue  by  means  of 
a  stamp  tax,  as  had  been 
done  in  the  Civil  War.  The 
navy  was  increased,  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  defenses  were 
strengthened. 

Dewey's  Victory  at  Ma- 
nila Bay.  The  first  fighting 
occurred  far  from  our  own 
shores.  When  war  was  de- 
clared, our  Pacific  fleet  was 
at  Hong  Kong,  China,  un- 
der the  command  of  Corn- 
were   cabled   to   Dewey  to 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Admiral  George  Dewey  on  the  deck 
of  the  Olympia 


modore  George  Dewey.  Orders 
proceed  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  capture  or  destroy  the 
Spanish  fleet.  Before  daylight  on  May  1,  1898,  Dewey's  six 
warships,  with  the  Olympia  in  the  lead,  sailed  into  Manila  Bay. 


THE   WAR  WITH  SPAIN  529 

The  Spanish  fleet  was  inferior  to  his  squadron,  but  it  had  the  aid 
of  the  shore  batteries.  The  battle  began  at  five  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  by  noon  Dewey  had  won  a  complete  victory. 
The  enemy's  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  six  hundred  Spanish 
sailors  were  killed  or  wounded.  Our  ships  were  practically 
unharmed,  and  only  eight  men  were  wounded.  Some  three 
months  later,  transports  carrying  American  troops  arrived 
on  the  scene,  and  the  city  of  Manila  was  occupied. 

Attitude  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain.  While  he  awaited 
the  arrival  of  American  soldiers,  Dewey's  position  was  difficult  be- 
cause of  the  warships  which  the  European  powers  sent  to  Manila 
Bay.  All  the  European  nations  except  Great  Britain  were  in 
sympathy  with  Spain,  but  Germany  was  the  only  one  guilty  of 
any  breach  of  neutrality.  Although  her  interests  in  the  Philip- 
pines were  slight,  Germany  sent  five  warships  to  Manila  Bay ; 
and  the  German  admiral  repeatedly  disregarded  Dewey's  rules 
for  the  blockade  of  the  harbor.  On  one  occasion  he  even  landed 
a  boat-load  of  provisions  for  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  city,  a 
breach  of  neutrality  almost  equivalent  to  an  act  of  war.  Finally, 
Dewey  sent  word  to  Admiral  von  Diederichs  that  the  next 
German  vessel  which  violated  the  blockade  would  be  fired  upon. 
"  And  tell  him,"  added  Dewey,  "  that  if  he  wants  a  fight,  he 
can  have  it  right  now."  Whether  the  German  admiral's 
conduct  was  the  result  of  his  own  ideas,  or  whether  he  acted 
under  orders,  has  never  been  ascertained.  It  is  known,  however, 
that  Great  Britain's  three  warships  in  Manila  Bay  were  under 
sealed  orders  which  were  disclosed  to  only  two  persons,  the 
British  Admiral  Chichester  and  Dewey  himself.  There  are 
good  grounds  for  believing  that  in  the  event  of  a  conflict  with 
the  German  warships,  Dewey  would  have  had  the  support  of  the 
British  fleet. 

Our  Campaign  in  Cuba.  While  these  stirring  events  were 
taking  place  across  the  Pacific,  our  navy  and  newly  recruited 
army  prepared  for  a  campaign  against  Spain's  forces  in  Cuba. 
Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  had  sailed  from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
for  an  unknown  destination.  Did  the  Spanish  admiral  intend 
to  bombard  the  cities  on  our  Atlantic  coast?     Or  would  he 


1/ 


u 


530      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

try  to  capture  the  Oregon,  which  was  coming  around  Cape 
Horn  from  San  Francisco  to  reinforce  the  Atlantic  fleet  ?  To  be 
ready  for  a  sudden  attack,  Commodore  Schley  was  placed  in 
command  of  a  flying  squadron  of  swift  cruisers ;  while  Admiral 
Sampson  was  given  the  task  of  blockading  the  coast  of  Cuba, 
so  as  to  cut  off  reinforcements  and  supplies. 

Admiral  Cervera  managed  to  evade  our  warships;  his  fleet 
found  a  haven  in  Santiago  Harbor,  whereupon  Sampson  and 
Schley  united  their  fleets  for  a  blockade.  By  sinking  the  collier 
Merrimac  across  the  harbor's  mouth,  Lieutenant  Richmond 
Hobson  tried  to  bottle  up  the  Spanish  fleet  so  as  to  make 
escape  impossible.  The  Merrimac  did  not  sink  at  the  right 
moment,  so  the  daring  plan  failed.  Meantime,  our  army  pre- 
pared for  a  campaign  in  Cuba.  General  Shafter  with  16,000 
men  landed  near  Santiago,  and  pushed  forward  against  the  city. 
Our  troops  won  brilliant  victories  at  San  Juan  Hill  and  El  Caney, 
positions  that  defended  Santiago.  A  few  days  later  Santiago  itself 
surrendered,  and  with  it  the  entire  Spanish  army  in  eastern  Cuba. 

Destruction  of  Cervera's  Fleet.  While  the  American  troops 
were  closing  in  on  Santiago,  Admiral  Cervera  determined  to 
make  a  dash  for  liberty.  On  the  morning  of  July  3  his  six 
warships  were  discovered  slowly  steaming  down  the  narrow 
channel  of  the  harbor.  The  American  ships  at  once  closed  in, 
directing  their  fire  against  Cervera's  flagship,  which  led  the  line. 
In  vain  the  Spanish  cruisers  tried  to  escape  into  the  open  sea. 
Our  battleships  formed  a  parallel  line  abreast  of  the  enemy, 
pouring  on  them  a  deadly  fire  of  shells.  Within  four  hours, 
every  Spanish  ship  was  sunk,  and  Admiral  Cervera  with  seven- 
teen hundred  men  were  prisoners.  We  lost  only  one  man,  and 
not  a  single  ship. 

The  victory  of  Santiago  ended  the  war  in  Cuba.  An  expedi- 
tion under  General  Nelson  A.  Miles  was  then  sent  against  Porto 
Rico.  Town  after  town  was  easily  captured,  when  suddenly 
the  march  to  victory  was  interrupted.  Realizing  her  complete 
defeat,  Spain  decided  to  ask  for  peace. 

The  Treaty  of  Paris.  Commissioners  from  the  United  States 
and  Spain  met  in  Paris  to  draw  up  a  treaty  of  peace,  which  was 


THE  WAR  WITH  SPAIN  531 

signed  on  December  10,  1898.  Spain  gave  up  all  authority 
over  Cuba,  which  became  an  independent  republic.  She  ceded 
Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States,  together  with  the  island  of 
Guam  (in  the  Ladrones),  and  the  entire  Philippine  archipelago. 
In  return,  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  Spain  twenty  million 
dollars. 

Results  of  the  War.  The  Spanish-American  War  had  several 
important  results : 

(1)  It  united  the  North  and  the  South  as  never  before.  Men 
who  had  worn  the  gray  fought  side  by  side  with  the  men  of  the 
North,  and  the  new  friendships  effaced  the  last  traces  of  hostility 
between  the  two  sections. 

(2)  The  war  was  a  convincing  proof  of  our  utter  lack  of 
military  preparedness. 

(3)  It  gave  Cuba  her  independence. 

(4)  The  United  States  secured  important  colonies,  the 
Philippines,  Hawaii,  and  Porto  Rico. 

(5)  These  new  possessions,  with  our  growing  trade  and 
wider  interests,  soon  made  the  United  States  a  world  power. 

Our  Country  Not  Prepared  for  War.  The  war  proved  that 
the  United  States  was  not  prepared  to  fight  against  a  strong 
foe,  and  it  was  fortunate  that  our  enemy  was  one  of  the  weakest 
nations  in  Europe.  Our  officers  were  not  used  to  handling  large 
bodies  of  troops;  many  of  our  soldiers  were  still  armed  with 
Springfield  rifles  of  the  Civil  War  pattern ;  we  had  only  a  small 
supply  of  smokeless  powder;  and  there  was  a  great  lack  of 
uniforms,  tents,  ambulances,  and  military  equipment  of  every 
kind.  Victory  was  won,  not  by  an  efficient  military  organiza- 
tion, for  this  we  did  not  have,  but  by  virtue  of  the  bravery  of  our 
volunteers  and  handful  of  regulars.  Our  navy,  too,  did  splendid 
work,  and  proved  to  be  better  prepared  for  service  than  the 
army. 

Soon  after  the  treaty  of  peace,  our  war  department  was  re- 
organized on  a  better  basis.  But  the  beginning  of  the  conflict 
with  Germany  in  1917  found  our  country  almost  as  unprepared 
for  war  as  in  1898.  Our  nation  has  clung  to  the  ideal  of  peace, 
placing  its  trust  in  arbitration,  while  other  countries  have  been 


532      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 


j^Mflfflflti^*'''*'*? 

^*  -  r~"W  t-  ll  «■** 

M   iind  HI 

Old  Central  School,  San  Carlos 

The  type  of  school  under  the  Spanish  government. 


creating  large  armies  and  navies.  The  lesson  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  like  that  of  the  War  of  1812,  was  ignored  by  our 
people.  That  lesson  is,  that  to  be  well  prepared  for  defense 
is  the  best  means  of  safeguarding  our  rights  as  a  nation. 

Cuba  Becomes 
an  Independent  Re- 
public. As  soon  as 
the  Spanish  forces 
were  withdrawn 
from  Cuba,  our 
army  engineers  took 
up  the  work  of  creat- 
ing sanitary  condi- 
tions throughout 
the  island,  espe- 
cially in  the  cities. 
Here,  as  later  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama, yellow  fever 
was  conquered  by 
warfare  against  the 
mosquito.  Indus- 
try was  fostered,  a 
modern  system  of 
education  estab- 
lished, and  every 
effort  made  to  pre- 
pare the  Cuban  peo- 
ple for  their  task 
of  self-government. 
This  work  accom- 
plished, our  troops  were  withdrawn  in  1902,  and  the  govern- 
ment was  turned  over  to  the  Cubans. 

The  United  States  reserved  the  right  to  intervene  in  order 
to  preserve  Cuba's  independence,  to  restore  order,  or  to  compel 
the  payment  of  debts  to  foreign  creditors.  An  insurrection  in 
1906  made  it  necessary  for  us  to  send  troops  to  the  island. 


!      -         MM  mm       mm  m 

*M*   WMm  85  mMimW'.*II<>wl  *« 

-"t»..  .«•*.    mm  if 

on! 


New  Intermediate  School,  Camiling,  Tarlac 
Province 

The  latest  developments  in  American  school  archi- 
tecture are  now  applied  to  Philippine  conditions. 
Photographs  from  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs. 


THE   WAR  WITH  SPAIN  533 

President  Roosevelt  appointed  a  military  governor,  order  was 
soon  restored,  and  after  three  years  our  forces  were  again  with- 
drawn. Since  then  peace  has  ruled  in  Cuba,  and  her  people  have 
apparently  learned  the  lesson  of  self-government. 

Our  Government  of  the  Philippines.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Philippines,  like  the  Cubans,  had  taken  up  arms  against  Spanish 
tyranny.  They  wanted  independence,  and  at  first  refused  to 
recognize  our  authority  over  the  islands.-  Under  a  native  chief, 
Aguinaldo,  the  Filipinos  waged  a  guerrilla  warfare  for  nearly  two 
years,  but  the  capture  of  their  leader  ended  the  insurrection. 

The  vast  Philippine  archipelago  is  peopled  by  numerous 
tribes,  many  of  which  are  but  slightly  civilized.  Self-govern- 
ment was  out  of  the  question  when  Spain  surrendered  the  islands, 
but  the  United  States  is  educating  the  people  so  that  they  may 
become  prepared  to  govern  themselves.  Meantime,  executive 
authority  is  vested  in  a  governor  and  other  officers  appointed  by 
the  President,  while  the  Filipinos  elect  their  own  legislature. 
Our  country  has  spent  large  sums  for  schools,  libraries,  sani- 
tation, and  public  works  on  the  islands,  and  much  progress  has 
been  made.  Independence  has  been  promised  to  the  Philippines 
as  soon  as  their  people  show  a  capacity  for  self-government. 

Annexation  of  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii.  Porto  Rico  is  a 
permanent  possession  of  the  United  States.  It  is  governed  by 
executive  officers  appointed  by  the  President,  most  of  whom 
must  be  native  Porto  Ricans.  The  voters  choose  the  legislature, 
and  the  island  is  represented  in  Congress  by  a  commissioner. 
Hawaii  was  also  annexed  in  1898  at  the  request  of  its  people, 
and  given  our  usual  form  of  territorial  government.  The 
President  appoints  the  governor,  while  the  voters  elect  the 
legislature. 

The  United  States  Becomes  a  World  Power.  The  most 
important  result  of  the  war  with  Spain  was  to  make  the  United 
States  a  world  power,  with  possessions  and  interests  that  are 
world  wide.  Whether  for  good  or  for  ill,  the  happy  isolation  of 
Washington's  day  became  a  thing  of  the  past.  Many  of  our 
citizens  regretted  this  situation.  In  the  Senate,  the  peace  treaty 
with  Spain  was  ratified  by  only  one  vote  more  than  the  necessary 


534      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

two  thirds.  Even  some  of  the  Senators  who  voted  for  the 
treaty  were  opposed  to  our  holding  the  Philippines.  They  be- 
lieved that  the  Republic  ought  not  attempt  to  govern  distant 
islands,  that  "  imperialism  "  is  a  menace  to  our  national  welfare. 
But  the  United  States  could  not  honorably  deliver  the  islands 
back  to  Spanish  tyranny,  and  their  people  were  not  capable  of 
self-government.  So  the  trend  of  events,  rather  than  our  own 
choice,  compelled  us  to  take  up  what  Rudyard  Kipling  calls  the 
"  white  man's  burden."  With  Hawaii  as  an  outpost,  with 
the  Philippines  in  our  possession,  and  a  growing  trade  with  Asia, 
we  began  to  take  more  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Far  East. 
This  was  soon  shown  by  our  part  in  putting  down  the  insur- 
rection in  China. 

The  Chinese  Boxer  Rebellion,  1900.  China  is  the  oldest  and, 
from  a  military  point  of  view,  the  weakest  nation  in  the  world. 
Taking  advantage  of  her  inability  to  resist  aggression,  European 
nations  began  to  occupy  the  richest  portions  of  her  territory. 
At  the  close  of  the  Spanish-American  War,  the  partition  of  China 
seemed  near  at  hand.  With  no  army  or  navy  worthy  of  the 
name,  the  Chinese  government  was  powerless  to  resist ;  but  at 
last  a  secret  society  known  as  "  Boxers  "  took  up  arms  to 
exterminate  the  hated  foreigner.  Aided  by  native  troops,  the 
Boxers  attacked  the  foreign  missions,  killed  the  German  min- 
ister, and  besieged  the  residences  of  the  foreign  ambassadors 
in  Peking.  At  this  crisis,  an  army  made  up  of  American, 
European,  and  Japanese  soldiers  was  sent  to  rescue  the  ambas- 
sadors. When  the  allied  forces  reached  Peking,  the  revolt 
promptly  collapsed. 

How  should  China  be  punished  for  the  Boxer  outrages  ?  Our 
Secretary  of  State,  John  Hay,  finally  persuaded  the  European 
nations  not  to  demand  more  Chinese  territory  as  an  indemnity. 
The  United  States  did  not  wish  to  see  China  divided  up  among 
the  powers  of  Europe.  Our  country  favored  the  "  open-door  " 
policy  ;  that  is,  a  policy  which  would  permit  all  nations  to  trade 
with  China  on  equal  terms.  Instead  of  giving  up  more  terri- 
tory, China  was  forced  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $333,000,000  to 
the  nations  whose  subjects  had  been  robbed  and  killed.     Our 


\J 


THE   WAR  WITH  SPAIN  535 

share  of  the  indemnity  was  about  $24,000,000,  but  a  few  years 
later  the  United  States  returned  one  half  of  this  sum,  keeping 
only  enough  to  cover  the  actual  losses  suffered  by  American 
citizens.  China  showed  her  appreciation  of  this  act  of  good  will 
by  placing  the  money  returned  in  a  special  indemnity  fund, 
to  be  used  for  the  education  of  Chinese  students  in  American 
colleges  and  universities. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXVIII. 

Coolidge,  A.  C,  The  United  States  as  a  World  Power,  ch.  VI. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  IV,  chs.  XXX- 
XXXII. 

Macdonald,  William,  Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory :  Recognition  of  the  Independence  of  Cuba,  pp.  597-598  ; 
Treaty  of  Paris,  pp.  602-608. 

Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  ch.  XV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS  FOR  TEACHERS 

Our  Territorial  Possessions.  Bruce,  H.  A.,  The  Romance  of 
American  Expansion,  ch.  VIII  ;  Coolidge,  A.  C,  The  United  States 
as  a  World  Power,  chs.  VII-VIII  ;  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and 
Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXIII  ;  Landon,  J.  S.,  The 
Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XII  ; 
Mowry,  W.  A.,  Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States,  chs.  IX- XI. 

REFERENCES   FOR   PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United  People,  pp.  70-77. 
Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Romance  of  Conquest,  chs.  XXVII-XXIX. 
Hitchcock,  Ripley,  Decisive  Battles  of  America,  chs.  XXI-XXII. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
OUR   OWN   TIMES   AND    ITS   PROBLEMS 

President  McKinley's  Reelection  and  Assassination.     The 

question  of  retaining;  the  Philippines  became  one  of  the  chief 
issues  in  the  presidential  election  of  1900.  The  Republicans 
renominated  President  McKinley,  who  had  a  record  of  faith- 
ful service  during  his  first  term,  and  for  Vice  President  named 
Theodore  Roosevelt  of  New  York.  The  Democrats  again 
nominated  William  Jennings  Bryan  of  Nebraska,  on  a  platform 
which  denounced  colonial  expansion  or  imperialism.  The  elec- 
tion resulted  in  a  Republican  victory,  and  President  McKinley 
was  inaugurated  for  his  second  term  on  March  4,  1901. 

While  attending  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo 
about  six  months  later,  the  President  was  shot  by  an  anarchist, 
dying  on  September  14.  Vice  President  Roosevelt  then  became 
President,  and  his  administration  was  so  successful  that  he  was 
reelected  in  1904  by  the  largest  popular  majority  ever  given  to 
any  President.  President  Roosevelt  was  a  man  of  boundless 
energy,  as  well  as  of  very  high  ability.  As  police  commissioner 
of  New  York  City,  as  assistant  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  as 
governor  of  New  York,  he  had  become  famous  for  his  ability  to 
get  things  done  ;  and  this  same  trait  was  shown  during  the  seven 
years  of  his  presidency. 

An  Inter-Oceanic  Canal.  From  the  time  of  Balboa's  dis- 
covery of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  men  had  dreamed  of  a  canal  across 
the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  connects  North  and  South 
America.  Spain,  England,  and  France  each  in  turn  became 
interested  in  an  Isthmian  Canal,  but  it  remained  for  the  United 
States  to  transform  the  dream  into  a  reality.  The  long  voyage 
of  the  Oregon  during  the  Spanish-American  War  proved  the 
military  importance  of  an  inter-oceanic  canal;   and  every  one 

536 


OUR  OWN   TIMES  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS 


537 


could  see  that  our  expanding  trade  would  be  greatly  aided  by  a 
water  route  across  the  Isthmus. 

Before  beginning  the  work  of  construction,  the  United 
States  had  to  overcome  many  obstacles.  First  we  had  to  secure 
Great  Britain's  consent  to 
set  aside  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  of  1850. 
This  was  an  agreement  that 
neither  the  United  States 
nor  Great  Britain  should 
have  exclusive  control  of 
any  canal  built  across  the 
Isthmus.  Great  Britain 
finally  consented  to  a  new 
treaty,  giving  the  United 
States  the  sole  right  to 
construct  and  operate  the 
canal ;  while  in  return,  our 
country  guaranteed  that  it 
should  be  open  to  the 
vessels  of  all  nations  on 
equal  terms.  A  long  discus- 
sion followed  as  to  the  best 
route,  Nicaragua  or  Pan- 
ama. A  commission  ap- 
pointed by  President  Roose- 
velt finally  recommended  in 
favor  of  Panama,  provided 
the  United  States  could  pur- 
chase the  rights  and  prop- 
erty of  the  French  Panama 
Company.  This  company  ? 
organized   by   the   French 

engineer,  De  Lesseps,  had  undertaken  to  build  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus,  but  gave  up  the  work  before  it  was  half  completed. 
The  United  States  bought  out  the  rights  of  the  French  Company 
for  $40,000,000,  then  attempted  to  persuade  Colombia  to  grant 


Underwood  and  Underwood 

Theodore  Roosevelt 

"In  order  to  succeed,"  said  Roosevelt  in 
1912,  "we  need  leaders  of  inspired  ideal- 
ism, leaders  to  whom  are  granted  great 
visions,  who  dream  greatly  and  strive  to 
make  their  dreams  come  true ;  who  can 
kindle  the  people  with  the  fire  from  their 
own  burning  souls.  The  leader  for  the 
time  being,  whoever  he  may  be,  is  but  an 
instrument,  to  be  used  until  broken  and 
then  to  be  cast  aside ;  and  if  he  is  worth 
his  salt  he  will  care  no  more  when  he  is 
broken  than  a  soldier  cares  when  he  is 
sent  where  his  life  is  forfeit  in  order  that 
the  victory  may  be  won." 


H 


538      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

a  right  of  way  across  the  Isthmus.  Our  liberal  offer  for  the 
narrow  strip  of  land  needed  was  a  cash  payment  of  $10,000,000, 
together  with  an  annual  subsidy  of  $600,000;  but  Colombia 
withheld  her  consent,  thinking  that  the  United  States  could  be 
forced  to  pay  a  much  larger  sum.  As  a  result  of  her  avarice, 
Colombia  got  nothing ;  for  by  a  bloodless  revolution  the  prov- 
ince of  Panama  seceded  from  Colombia,  and  its  independence 
was  recognized  by  President  Roosevelt.  Panama  promptly 
accepted  the  compensation  that  Colombia  had  refused,  and 
ceded  a  strip  of  land  ten  miles  in  width,  extending  across  the 
Isthmus  from  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Panama  on  the 
Pacific,  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles. 

Building  the  Panama  Canal.  During  the  next  two  years,  our 
army  engineers  established  sanitary  conditions  throughout  the 
canal  zone,  where  mosquitoes  and  yellow  fever  had  long  held 
sway.  Work  began  in  earnest  in  1904,  under  the  direction 
of  Colonel  George  W.  Goethals  of  the  United  States  Army; 
and  the  completed  canal  was  ready  for  use  in  1914,  having  cost 
our  government  $375,000,000.  The  Panama  Canal,  unlike 
that  at  Suez,  is  of  the  lock  type.  For  nearly  three  fifths  of  its 
length  it  runs  through  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  River.  This 
has  been  converted  into  a  lake  twenty-two  miles  long  by  means 
of  the  immense  Gatun  Dam,  ninety  feet  high  and  a  mile  and  a 
half  long.  This  lake  is  about  eighty-five  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
so  that  three  pairs  of  locks  were  built  at  Gatun,  each  with  a  lift 
of  about  twenty-nine  feet.  Vessels  pass  through  the  canal  in 
from  ten  to  twelve  hours,  whereas  the  voyage  around  Cape  Horn 
requires  from  thirty  to  forty-five  days. 

The  canal  has  increased  the  efficiency  of  our  navy  by  making 
it  possible  for  the  Atlantic  fleet  to  reach  the  Pacific  coast 
promptly,  or  for  the  Pacific  fleet  to  come  to  the  defense  of  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  Commercially,  the  canal  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. It  reduces  the  distance  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
by  eight  thousand  miles ;  while  from  New  York  to  Japan  and 
Australia  it  cuts  off  four  thousand  miles.  In  the  world-wide 
competition  for  the  markets  of  the  Orient,  this  great  waterway 
should  prove  the  strong  ally  of  the  American  manufacturer. 


OUR  OWN  TIMES  AND   ITS  PROBLEMS 


539 


Public  Improvements  at  National  Expense.  Soon  after  the 
completion  of  the  Panama  Canal,  our  government  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  trunk  line  railroad  in  Alaska,  in  order  to  open  up 
the  vast  resources  of  that  country.  Nearly  all  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  own  and  operate  their  railways,  but  the  Alaskan  line 
is  the  only  government-owned  railroad  in  the  United  States. 


I  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

A  Lock  in  the  Panama  Canal 

An  electric  engine  on  the  track  at  the  side  is  towing  a  transport  filled  with 
New  Zealand  troops  homeward-bound  after  the  World  War.  The  American 
soldiers  on  the  canal  bank  are  giving  the  "Anzacs"  a  rousing  welcome. 

The  Panama  Canal  and  the  Alaskan  Railroad  show  the  change 
that  has  occurred  in  the  policy  of  the  national  government  con- 
cerning public  improvements.  In  our  earlier  history,  the  states 
undertook  to  build  the  turnpikes  and  canals  necessary  to  improve 
transportation,  for  most  people  thought  that  the  federal  govern- 
ment had  no  right  to  spend  money  for  this  purpose.  But  soon 
the  states  were  glad  to  receive  grants  of  public  lands  to  aid  them 
in  this  work;  while  at  a  later  date,  the  national  government 


540      THE   UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

promoted  railroad  building  by  giving  the  companies  immense 
tracts  of  western  lands.  To-day  the  federal  government  spends 
millions  of  dollars  each  year  for  internal  improvements,  and  no 
one  questions  its  right  to  do  so.  Extensive  river  and  harbor 
improvements  are  carried  on,  such  as  the  construction  of  break- 
waters and  piers  at  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Milwaukee  ; 
and  vast  sums  are  expended  annually  for  the  deepening  of 
harbors,  principally  by  dredging. 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  President  Roosevelt 
performed  a  splendid  service  by  calling  attention  to  the  need  of 
greater  care  and  economy  in  the  use  of  our  natural  resources. 
No  country  is  so  richly  endowed  as  the  United  States  in  fertility 
of  soil,  in  wealth  of  forests,  and  in  mineral  products,  waterways, 
and  water  power.  Unfortunately,  many  of  our  people  have 
acted  as  if  the  wonderful  storehouse  provided  by  nature  could 
never  become  exhausted.  Our  great  forest  areas  have  been 
stripped  of  trees  by  owners  who  cared  only  to  make  money 
as  fast  as  possible.  Young  trees  that  should  have  been  spared 
were  taken  for  telegraph  poles  or  railroad  ties,  and  no  effort  was 
made  to  replace  them  by  planting.  Terrible  forest  fires  in  the 
Northwest  swept  away  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  valuable 
timber,  adding  to  the  work  of  destruction. 

The  Establishment  of  Forest  Reserves.  At  last  men  began 
to  realize  that  the  destruction  of  our  forests  meant  even  more 
than  the  loss  of  our  timber  supply.  The  productiveness  of  our 
farms  was  seriously  threatened,  for  forests  protect  the  head- 
waters of  the  large  rivers,  thus  securing  a  uniform  flow  through- 
out the  year  and  providing  water  for  irrigation.  President 
Roosevelt  in  1908  invited  the  governors  of  all  the  states  and 
territories  to  meet  at  Washington  to  discuss  the  question  of 
conserving  our  natural  resources.  This  was  the  first  of  the  an- 
nual meetings  of  what  is  now  called  the  "  House  of  Governors." 
At  this  conference  it  was  agreed  that  each  governor  should 
recommend  to  his  own  state  the  measures  that  would  help  con- 
serve its  resources  in  forests,  lands,  water,  and  minerals. 

As  a  further  step  toward  conservation,  the  national  govern- 
ment has  set  aside  a  vast  area  of  one  hundred  thousand  square 


OUR  OWN   TIMES  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS 


541 


miles,  known  as  forest  reserves.  These  reserves,  in  extent  as 
large  as  the  states  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  taken  together,  are 
held  in  trust  by  the  national  government  for  the  welfare  of  the 
entire  country.  The  reserves  are  so  located  as  to  protect  the 
headwaters  of  our  large  rivers ;  they  are  guarded  by  men  who 
ride  through  the  forests  on  horseback,  watching  for  fire  and  for 
timber  thieves.     A  large  amount  of  lumber  is  sold  each  year ; 


The  Roosevelt  Dam,  Salt  River,  Arizona 

The  government  built  the  dam  to  irrigate  200,000  acres,  and  charged  off 
the  cost  of  $10,000,000  against  the  land  so  benefited. 

but  government  officials  decide  what  timber  may  be  cut,  and 
new  trees  are  planted  in  place  of  those  cut  down.  Many  of  the 
states  have  also  set  aside  forest  reserves,  which  are  managed  in 
the  same  way  as  the  national  reserves. 

Irrigation  Work  of  the  National  Government.  Irrigation  is 
another  important  aid  to  agriculture,  especially  in  the  arid  lands 
of  the  West  and  Southwest.  By  constructing  immense  dams 
and  reservoirs  in  this  region,  the  national  government  has 
transformed  millions  of  acres  of  desert  lands  into  fertile  farms. 


542      THE   UNITED   STATES   AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

These  lands  are  sold  to  settlers  upon  small  annual  payments, 
which  will  ultimately  cover  the  cost  of  the  irrigation  works. 
Within  the  last  twenty  years,  the  amount  of  land  irrigated 
in  the  United  States  has  been  increased  from  three  million  to 
more  than  thirteen  million  acres.  These  irrigation  projects 
have  cost  large  sums,  but  the  cost  is  small  in  comparison  with 
the  values  created  by  changing  desert  wastes  into  fertile  farms. 

The  Discovery  of  Gold  in  Alaska.  In  the  year  1896,  rich 
deposits  of  gold  were  discovered  near  Klondike  Creek  in  the 
remote  Canadian  territory  of  Yukon,  a  region  almost  within 
the  Arctic  circle.  Still  larger  deposits  were  soon  discovered 
in  the  Nome  district  of  Alaska,  and  the  rush  to  the  new  gold 
fields  was  like  that  to  California  in  1849.  During  the  six  years 
that  followed  the  discovery,  Alaska  yielded  $132,500,000  in 
gold ;  and  the  treasure  seekers  learned  that  the  territory  held 
immense  coal  deposits,  besides  a  great  quantity  of  valuable 
timber  and  a  vast  area  suitable  for  agriculture.  The  popula- 
tion of  Alaska  increased  rapidly,  and  the  question  of  the  correct 
boundary  between  Canada  and  Alaska  became  more  important 
than  ever.  In  the  year  1909,  a  great  exposition  was  held  at 
Seattle  to  show  the  progress  of  Alaska  and  Washington.  One  of 
the  striking  features  of  the  exposition  was  a  monument  eighty 
feet  high,  covered  with  gold  from  the  Yukon  district. 

Arbitration  of  the  Great  Coal  Strike.  In  1902,  a  strike  of  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  thousand  anthracite  coal  miners  in 
Pennsylvania  threatened  the  welfare  of  the  entire  country.  The 
miners  demanded  better  pay,  shorter  hours,  and  recognition  of 
their  union.  The  attempt  of  the  operators  to  work  the  mines 
with  non-union  men  led  to  riots  and  the  calling  out  of  the  state 
militia ;  and  the  strike,  which  began  in  May,  was  still  in  progress 
as  winter  drew  near.  Meantime,  the  price  of  coal  increased 
rapidly  as  the  supply  dwindled;  many  factories  had  to  close 
down,  and  people  were  beginning  to  suffer  from  lack  of  fuel. 
President  Roosevelt  determined  to  interfere  in  order  to  prevent 
a  coal  famine.  He  called  to  Washington  representatives  of  the 
miners  and  operators,  and  urged  them  to  arbitrate  their  differ- 
ences ;  otherwise,  the  federal  government  might  be  forced  to 


OUR  OWN  TIMES  AND   ITS  PROBLEMS  543 

take  steps  to  operate  the  mines.  The  strikers  and  their  em- 
ployers finally  agreed  that  the  questions  at  issue  should  be 
settled  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  President.  The  miners 
went  back  to  work,  and  during  the  winter  the  commission  de- 
cided in  favor  of  most  of  their  demands. 

International  Arbitration.  In  foreign  affairs,  a  great  event 
occurred  in  1899  when  the  czar  of  Russia  invited  the  nations  of 
the  world  to  send  representatives  to  a  peace  conference  at  The 
Hague,  Holland.  Twenty-nine  countries  were  represented, 
including  the  United  States  and  the  leading  countries  of  Europe 
and  South  America.  It  was  decided  to  establish  a  permanent 
court  of  arbitration  at  The  Hague  ;  and  rules  were  adopted  which, 
it  was  hoped,  would  make  warfare  less  inhuman.  Declarations 
were  signed  by  some  of  the  leading  powers  against  the  throwing 
of  bombs  from  balloons,  against  the  use  of  projectiles  filled  with 
poison  gases,  and  against  the  use  of  dumdum  bullets. 

The  United  States  had  always  favored  arbitration  as  a  means 
of  settling  disputes  with  other  nations ;  and  since  Washington's 
time,  our  country  had  concluded  fifty-seven  arbitration  treaties. 
So  it  was  not  surprising  that  the  United  States  and  Mexico  were 
the  first  nations  to  submit  a  case  to  The  Hague  Court  for  decision. 
A  few  years  later,  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  asked 
this  tribunal  to  decide  the  century-old  dispute  concerning  our 
fishery  rights  off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland.  Our  claim  was 
that  the  treaty  of  1783  gave  American  fishermen  the  right  to 
ply  their  calling  in  Newfoundland  waters  ;  whereas  Great  Britain 
insisted  that  these  rights  were  annulled  by  the  War  of  1812. 
The  Hague  Court  decided  that  while  Great  Britain  had  the  right 
to  make  reasonable  rules  concerning  her  fisheries,  she  could  not 
prohibit  our  citizens  from  fishing  on  the  Banks,  or  forbid  them  to 
land  at  Newfoundland  ports  in  order  to  buy  bait  and  supplies. 

Another  important  arbitration  occurred  in  1903,  when  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  appointed  a  special  commission 
to  decide  the  dispute  over  the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Each  nation  appointed  three  members 
of  this  tribunal,  which  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States. 
This  favorable  award  was  the  result  of  the  impartiality  of 


544      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

England's  Chief  Justice,  Lord  Alverstone,  who  voted  in  favor 
of  our  claim.  Great  Britain  accepted  the  award  in  spite  of  Can- 
ada's vigorous  protest. 

Claims  against  Venezuela.  Many  of  the  countries  of  South 
America  have  borrowed  large  sums  of  money  from  people 
living  in  Europe ;  and  in  some  cases,  the  failure  to  pay  these 
debts  when  due  has  led  to  serious  difficulties.  For  example, 
the  subjects  of  Germany  loaned  $20,000,000  for  the  construction 
of  a  railroad  in  Venezuela,  in  return  for  which  the  Venezuelan 
government  guaranteed  dividends  of  seven  per  cent.  These 
dividends  were  not  paid ;  and  at  the  same  time,  British  and 
Italian  creditors  were  unable  to  secure  payment  of  their  claims. 
So  in  1902,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Italy  resorted  to  a 
blockade  of  Venezuelan  ports  as  a  means  of  collecting  the  debts 
due  to  their  subjects.  The  situation  was  much  like  that  of  forty 
years  before,  when  three  European  governments  took  action 
against  Mexico. 

Our  government  was  placed  in  a  difficult  position.  The  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  forbade  any  attempt  by  foreign  powers  to  in- 
terfere with  the  republics  of  South  America,  or  to  annex  their 
territory ;  but  it  did  not  protect  them  from  the  consequences  of 
refusing  to  pay  their  just  debts.  As  President  Roosevelt  said  : 
"  We  do  not  guarantee  any  state  against  punishment  if  it 
misconducts  itself,  provided  that  punishment  does  not  take  the 
form  of  the  acquisition  of  territory  by  any  non-American 
power."  At  the  same  time,  we  could  not  approve  this  coercion  ; 
for  the  seizure  of  Venezuela's  ports  and  customhouses  might 
easily  lead  to  a  permanent  occupation  of  her  territory,  just  as  in 
the  case  of  Mexico.  Finally,  the  United  States  persuaded  the 
three  European  countries  to  accept  Venezuela's  promise  to  set 
aside  part  of  her  customs  revenue  each  year  for  the  benefit  of  her 
creditors,  and  to  submit  the  claims  themselves  to  arbitration. 
It  was  decided  that  Venezuela  owed  $8,000,000  instead  of  the 
$40,000,000  claimed  by  her  creditors,  and  they  were  paid  ac- 
cordingly. 

Santo  Domingo  Becomes  Bankrupt.  The  little  republic  of 
Santo  Domingo  was  the  next  country  to  get  into  financial 


OUR  OWN   TIMES  AND   ITS  PROBLEMS  545 

difficulties.  As  a  result  of  frequent  revolution  and  systematic 
plundering  of  the  public  treasury,  the  government  found  itself 
bankrupt,  with  a  debt  of  $32,000,000.  Two  thirds  of  this 
amount  was  due  to  European  creditors,  and  their  governments 
notified  the  United  States  that  unless  we  took  charge  of  the 
Dominican  customhouses,  they  would  be  compelled  to  do  so.  So 
President  Roosevelt,  acting  with  the  consent  of  the  government 
of  the  island,  appointed  a  receiver  of  Dominican  customs,  who 
carries  on  his  duties  under  the  protection  of  a  United  States 
gunboat.  This  arrangement  is  still  in  force,  and  has  proven 
satisfactory  both  to  Santo  Domingo  and  to  her  creditors.  A 
similar  plan  is  in  force  for  the  control  of  the  finances  of  Haiti. 

President  Roosevelt  as  Peacemaker.  In  the  summer  of  1906, 
the  eyes  of  the  world  were  turned  toward  the  Peace  Conference 
at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  In  the  Far  East,  Russia  and 
Japan  had  been  waging  a  bloody  war  for  nearly  eighteen  months 
over  their  respective  claims  in  Korea  and  Manchuria ;  but 
although  defeated,  Russia  was  not  ready  to  yield.  President 
Roosevelt  finally  offered  the  friendly  services  of  the  United 
States  in  arranging  a  meeting  for  the  discussion  of  peace  terms. 
Russia  and  Japan  replied  by  sending  representatives  to  Ports- 
mouth, where  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 

Our  Relations  with  Japan.  Japan's  growing  power  in  the 
Far  East,  together  with  her  frank  ambition  to  dominate  China, 
has  made  her  a  strong  commercial  rival  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Her  claim  to  a  paramount  interest  in  China 
was  formally  recognized  by  the  United  States  in  1917 ;  and  the 
Paris  Conference  gave  her  special  privileges  in  Shantung  Prov- 
ince. However,  Japan  has  accepted  our  principle  of  "  the  open 
door,"  or  equal  trade  rights  in  Chinese  territory  for  all  nations. 

Japanese  immigration  to  this  country  has  led  to  some  fric- 
tion, chiefly  because  of  the  attitude  of  California  and  the  Far 
West  toward  the  Japanese.  A  serious  difficulty  arose  in  1906 
when  the  Board  of  Education  of  San  Francisco  passed  a  reso- 
lution requiring  Japanese  and  Chinese  children  to  attend  sep- 
arate schools,  instead  of  being  educated  with  the  white  children 
of  that  city.     Japan  protested  against  this  action  as  a  violation 


*  546      THE    UNITED    STATES   AS   A   WORLD   POWER 

of  her  treaty  rights  with  the  United  States,  and  as  an  affront 
to  her  as  a  nation.  President  Roosevelt  persuaded  the  Cal- 
ifornia authorities  to  compromise  the  matter ;  but  in  1913, 
California  brought  on  a  new  crisis  by  passing  a  law  which  for- 
bade the  Japanese  to  own  land  for  agricultural  purposes.  Japan 
made  a  strong  protest  against  this  measure,  which  was  passed 
against  the  wishes  of  the  administration  at  Washington.  Her 
protest  still  stands,  and  the  difficulty  has  not  yet  been  adjusted. 
California's  action  was  the  result  of  her  natural  opposition  to 
Japanese  or  Chinese  immigration.  Japan  herself  does  not  wish 
her  subjects  to  come  to  the  United  States  in  large  numbers  ;  and 
she  has  made  an  informal  agreement  with  our  government  not 
to  issue  passports  to  Japanese  laborers  who  wish  to  come  here. 
The  Australian  Ballot.  The  quarter  century  between  the 
years  1888  and  1913  was  marked  by  many  efforts  to  make  our 
government  more  democratic.  The  first  step  in  this  direction 
was  the  adoption  of  the  Australian  ballot.  Before  the  year 
1888,  the  ballots  used  at  elections  were  usually  provided  by  the 
candidates  themselves,  or  by  their  party  organizations.  These 
ballots  were  of  various  sizes  and  colors,  so  that  it  was  easy  for 
party  workers,  standing  near  the  ballot  box,  to  see  how  each  man 
voted.  This  prevented  independent  voting,  for  men  who  did 
not  vote  as  their  employers  wished  might  be  discharged.  It 
also  encouraged  dishonest  voting.  Corrupt  men  bought  votes 
for  a  few  dollars  each,  and  made  sure  of  their  purchase  by 
watching  the  voter  place  his  ballot  in  the  box. 

An  important  reform  came  between  the  years  1888  and  1895, 
when  nearly  all  the  states  adopted  the  Australian  ballot,  so-called 
because  it  was  first  used  in  that  country.  Under  this  plan,  the 
names  of  all  the  candidates  are  printed  on  a  single  official  ballot 
which  the  voter  receives  from  an  election  official  when  he  enters 
the  voting  place.  Sometimes  the  names  of  the  candidates  are 
*  printed  in  parallel  columns,  underneath  the  party  name  and 
emblem.  In  other  states,  the  names  of  the  candidates  are 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order  under  the  title  of  the  office, 
followed  by  the  name  of  the  political  party.  The  voter  marks 
the  ballot  in  secret,  in  a  booth  provided  for  that  purpose.     He 


OUR  OWN  TIMES  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS  547 

then  folds  the  ballot  with  the  names  hidden  and  deposits  it  in 
the  ballot  box,  so  that  no  one  except  himself  knows  for  whom 
his  vote  is  cast. 

Both  the  states  and  the  national  government  have  passed 
laws  to  prohibit  corrupt  practices  in  elections.  These  acts  re- 
quire candidates  for  office  to  file  sworn  statements  of  the 
amounts  expended  by  them  or  in  their  behalf  for  election 
purposes ;  and  severe  penalties  are  provided  against  bribery  or 
intimidation  of  voters.  These  measures,  together  with  the 
Australian  ballot,  have  done  much  to  secure  the  free  and  honest 
elections  without  which  democratic  government  is  only  an  empty 
form. 

The  Direct  Primary  System.  Within  recent  years,  the  people 
all  over  the  country  have  demanded  that  government  should  be 
brought  more  directly  under  popular  control.  As  a  result, 
many  states  have  abolished  the  convention  method  of  nominat- 
ing candidates  in  favor  of  the  direct  primary  system.  Under 
this  plan,  candidates  for  political  office  are  nominated  by  a 
direct  vote  of  the  members  of  their  party.  The  names  of 
persons  who  wish  to  be  nominated  are  placed  on  the  ballot, 
and  on  a  certain  day  an  election  is  held.  This  is  similar  to  a 
regular  election  except  that  the  voters  declare  to  which  party 
they  belong,  and  vote  only  for  the  candidates  of  that  party. 
Those  persons  are  nominated  who  receive  the  largest  number 
of  votes  cast  by  the  party  members.  This  plan  aims  to  do 
away  with  the  abuses  of  the  convention  system  and  machine 
control,  and  to  make  the  party  more  directly  responsible  to  its 
members.  At  first  used  only  for  local  offices,  direct  primaries 
have  grown  in  favor,  until  now,  in  addition  to  local  candidates, 
state  officers  and  United  States  Senators  are  often  nominated  in 
this  way. 

Direct  Legislation.  In  many  states,  the  trend  toward  de- 
mocracy was  shown  by  the  adoption  of  constitutional  amend- 
ments which  permit  the  people  themselves  to  vote  directly  on 
laws,  instead  of  depending  solely  upon  their  legislatures.  This 
direct  legislation,  as  it  is  called,  is  accomplished  either  through 
the  referendum  or  the  initiative.    The  referendum  is  the  sub- 


(If 


548     THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 


mission  to  voters  of  a  measure  passed  by  the  state  legislature, 
or  by  the  council  of  a  city  or  village.  If  the  voters  approve  the 
measure  it  becomes  a  law,  otherwise  it  is  of  no  effect.  The  refer- 
endum is  often  employed  in  the  case  of  a  proposed  bond  issue ; 
or  to  determine  whether  liquor  shall  be  sold  in  a  certain  locality ; 
or  whether  a  franchise  or  privilege  shall  be  granted  by  the  city 

government  to  a  street  rail- 
way or  other  public  service 
corporation.  It  is  of  es- 
pecial value  in  local  affairs, 
where  the  issue  is  simple 
and  easily  understood  by  the 
voters.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  numerous  measures  are 
submitted  at  any  one  elec- 
tion, the  voters  are  likely  to 
give  them  slight  considera- 
tion. 

Another  form  of  direct 
legislation  is  the  initiative, 
which  empowers  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  voters  to 
propose  laws.  For  example, 
the  constitution  of  Oregon 
provides  that  eight  per  cent 
of  the  voters  may  propose 
a  measure,  which  must  after- 
wards be  submitted  to  the  voters  at  an  election.  If  approved 
by  them,  it  becomes  a  law  just  as  if  passed  by  the  legislature. 
Woman's  Suffrage.  The  granting  of  the  ballot  to  women  is 
another  sign  of  the  recent  movement  to  make  our  government 
more  democratic.  Like  the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and  the 
direct  primary,  this  reform  had  its  origin  in  the  West.  Wyo- 
ming gave  women  the  right  to  vote  when  it  was  organized  as  a 
territory  in  1869 ;  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  Utah  took  the  same 
step  between  1890  and  1893.  During  the  years  1910  to  1917, 
woman's  suffrage  was  adopted  by  nine  other  states,  namely: 


Dr.  Anna  Howard  Shaw 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts' Woman  Suffrage  Association. 

One  of  the  foremost  leaders  in  the  long 
struggle  to  secure  equal  suffrage  for  all 
citizens. 


OUR  OWN   TIMES  AND   ITS  PROBLEMS 


549 


Arizona,  California,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Montana,  Nevada,  New 
York,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  Finally,  the  suffrage  leaders 
turned  their  attention  to  Congress,  and  demanded  that  the 
national  constitution  be  amended,  giving  woman  the  right  to 
vote  throughout  the  entire  United  States.  After  a  long  con- 
test, Congress  in  1919  passed  a  resolution  to  this  effect ;  and 
the  proposed  amendment — 
the  Nineteenth  —  is  now 
before  the  states  for  rati- 
fication. 

Recent  Federal  Amend- 
ments. Two  important 
amendments  were  added  to 
the  federal  Constitution  in 
the  year  1913.  The  Six- 
teenth Amendment  author- 
ized Congress  to  tax  in- 
comes, while  the  Seven- 
teenth Amendment  provides 
that  United  States  Senators 
shall  be  elected  by  a  direct 
vote  of  the  people,  instead 
of  by  the  state  legislatures. 
By  the  year  1917,  twenty- 
seven  states  had  forbidden 
the  manufacture  or  sale  of 
intoxicating  liquor  within 
their  borders.  Finally,  the  supporters  of  prohibition  were  able 
to  secure  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  in  Congress  for  the  sub- 
mission of  a  national  prohibition  amendment.  By  January, 
1919,  three  fourths  of  the  state  legislatures  had  ratified  this 
Eighteenth  Amendment.  It  forbids  the  manufacture  or  sale  of 
liquor  throughout  the  entire  United  States  after  January  1, 1920. 

The  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff  Law.  William  H.  Taft  of  Ohio 
succeeded  Theodore  Roosevelt  as  President  on  March  4,  1909, 
having  defeated  William  J.  Bryan,  twice  before  the  standard- 
bearer  of  the  Democratic  party.     The  new  President  had  been 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  Taft. 

William  Howard  Taft 

Whose  conspicuous  services  as  President 
and  later  as  private  citizen  during  the 
World  War  mark  him  as  one  of  the  great 
Americans  of  the  age. 


550      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS    A  WORLD   POWER 

Secretary  of  War  under  Roosevelt's  administration,  and  the 
tariff  was  the  chief  issue  of  the  campaign.  Shortly  after  his 
inauguration,  President  Taft  called  Congress  in  special  session 
to  consider  the  tariff  question.  After  a  five  months'  debate, 
Congress  passed  the  Payne-Aldrich  Act,  a  high  tariff  measure. 
This  time  the  Republicans  were  not  so  well  united  in  favor  of 
protection;  and  a  group  of  Republican  members  of  Congress, 
called  insurgents,  declared  that  the  tariff  rates  ought  to  be 
reduced.  They  charged  that  by  shutting  out  foreign  competi- 
tion, the  tariff  was  aiding  the  trusts  to  control  prices. 

Results  of  the  Insurgent  Movement.  The  insurgent  move- 
ment in  the  Republican  party  led  to  several  important  results. 
For  many  years  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  had 
exercised  large  powers  over  legislation ;  indeed,  his  position  was 
second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  the  President  himself. 
But  in  March,  1910,  Republican  insurgents,  aided  by  the 
Democrats,  deprived  the  Speaker  of  some  of  his  powers.  As  a 
result,  members  of  the  House  have  more  control  over  its  pro- 
ceedings. The  House  of  Representatives  now  elects  its  own 
committees,  instead  of  permitting  the  Speaker  to  appoint 
them. 

The  insurgent  movement  continued  to  gain  force,  until 
in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1912  it  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Progressive  party.  This  new  party  was  made  up  of  the 
supporters  of  ex-President  Roosevelt,  who  again  became  a 
candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  in  1912.  But  the 
Republican  convention  renominated  President  Taft,  whereupon 
the  Progressives  held  a  separate  convention,  and  nominated 
Roosevelt  amid  wild  enthusiasm.  This  split  in  the  Republican 
ranks  made  certain  the  election  of  the  Democratic  nominee, 
Governor  Woodrow  Wilson  of  New  Jersey.  Of  the  531  elec- 
toral votes,  Wilson  received  435,  Roosevelt  88,  and  Taft  8. 
The  Democrats  also  secured  control  of  both  houses  of  Congress, 
and  thus  were  in  a  position  to  carry  out  their  policies. 

President  Wilson  and  Mexico.  Among  the  important 
measures  of  President  Wilson's  first  administration  were  the 
Underwood  Tariff  Act,  the  Federal  Reserve  Act,  and  the  law 


OUR  OWN   TIMES  AND   ITS  PROBLEMS  551 

establishing  a  Federal  Trade  Commission.  While  Congress 
and  the  President  were  considering  these  questions,  our  relation 
with  Mexico  reached  a  critical  stage.  The  revolution  against 
President  Diaz  in  1911  overthrew  the  leader  who  had  ruled 
Mexico  with  a  strong  hand  for  thirty  years.  A  succession  of 
revolts  now  seemed  likely  to  prevent  the  establishment  of  any 
government  strong  enough  to  maintain  law  and  order.  The 
successor  of  Diaz  was  President  Madero,  but  he  was  soon 
assassinated,  and  General  Huerta  proclaimed  himself  President. 

There  was  reason  to  believe  that  Huerta  himself  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  murder  of  Madero  ;  and  on  this  account,  as  well 
as  because  Huerta  was  attempting  to  rule  as  a  dictator,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  refused  to  recognize  him  as  the  lawful  ruler  of 
Mexico.  This  policy  angered  Huerta's  supporters,  and  soon 
the  lives  and  property  of  our  citizens  in  Mexico  were  in  serious 
danger.  In  April,  1914,  Mexican  soldiers  at  Tampico  arrested 
several  United  States  sailors,  two  of  whom  were  forcibly  taken 
from  a  launch  flying  the  American  flag.  President  Huerta 
promptly  ordered  the  release  of  the  prisoners,  but  refused 
Admiral  Mayo's  demand  for  a  salute  to  our  flag  by  way  of 
apology.  President  Wilson  then  ordered  our  fleet  to  occupy  the 
port  of  Vera  Cruz,  which  was  easily  captured  by  United 
States  marines.  In  the  end,  the  dispute  was  settled  through 
the  friendly  mediation  of  Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Chile.  It  was 
agreed  that  President  Huerta  should  resign  from  office,  and 
that  the  United  States  should  recognize  the  provisional  govern- 
ment which  would  then  be  established. 

United  States  Troops  Enter  Mexico.  General  Carranza 
became  the  next  president  of  Mexico,  but  one  of  his  most  skillful 
generals,  Francisco  Villa,  soon  headed  a  new  revolt.  When  the 
United  States  recognized  Carranza  as  President,  Villa  swore 
vengeance  upon  our  citizens.  Under  cover  of  night,  his  troops 
made  a  raid  on  the  town  of  Columbus,  New  Mexico,  where 
they  killed  seventeen  Americans  (March  9,  1916).  President 
Wilson  ordered  a  force  of  regulars  under  General  John  J.  Pershing 
into  Mexico  with  orders  to  pursue  and  capture  Villa,  but  that 
bandit  chieftain  scattered  his  forces  and  made  good  his  escape. 


552       THE   UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

Although  President  Carranza  had  made  no  attempt  to  prevent 
the  border  raids,  he  protested  strongly  against  our  sending 
troops  into  Mexico,  and  refused  to  cooperate  with  them  against 
Villa.  Finally,  Carranza  ordered  his  forces  to  halt  the  advance 
of  General  Pershing's  column,  and  at  Carrizal  the  Mexicans 
killed  a  score  of  American  troopers. 

War  with  Mexico  now  appeared  certain,  and  on  June  18,  1916, 
President  Wilson  called  out  the  entire  National  Guard  for 
service  on  the  Mexican  border.  This  action  convinced  the 
Mexican  government  that  the  United  States  was  in  earnest,  and 
President  Carranza  proposed  a  conference  to  discuss  the  issues 
between  the  two  countries.  It  was  agreed  that  our  troops 
should  be  withdrawn  from  Mexico,  and  that  each  country 
should  guard  its  own  side  of  the  border.  Our  troops  were 
accordingly  withdrawn,  but  at  the  same  time  Mexico  was 
notified  that  we  reserved  the  right  to  pursue  marauders  across 
the  border,  if  such  action  again  became  necessary.  Later 
events  disclosed  that  the  German  government  had  bribed  the 
Mexican  revolutionists  to  attack  the  lives  and  property  of  our 
citizens  in  Mexico  and  along  the  border.  By  involving  the 
United  States  in  a  war  with  Mexico,  the  German  government 
believed  that  our  nation  would  be  less  able  to  defend  itself 
against  German  outrages  on  the  high  seas. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1916.  The  national  nominating 
conventions  of  1916  were  held  just  as  the  country  seemed  on  the 
verge  of  war  with  Mexico.  President  Wilson  had  no  rival  for 
the  Democratic  nomination ;  while  the  Republicans  chose  as 
their  candidate,  Charles  E.  Hughes,  then  serving  as  Justice  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  The  supporters  of  ex- 
President  Roosevelt  tried  to  secure  his  nomination  by  the 
Republicans  as  well  as  by  the  Progressive  party.  When 
the  Republican  convention  nominated  Justice  Hughes,  Mr. 
Roosevelt  declined  the  Progressive  nomination,  urging  his 
followers  to  support  the  Republican  candidate.  In  their 
appeal  to  the  voters,  the  Democrats  pointed  to  the  successful 
record  of  President  Wilson's  administration ;  they  had  passed 
the  laws  promised  in  their  platform  of  1912,  and  their  candidate 


OUR  OWN  TIMES  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS  553 

had  kept  the  country  out  of  the  World  War.     The  contest      / 
proved  a  close  one,  but  the  final  returns  showed  the  reelection 
of  President  Wilson. 


REFERENCES  FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  ch.  XXX. 
Bassett,  J.  S.,  Short  History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XXIX- XL. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch. 

XV. 
Latane,  J.  H.,  America  as  a  World  Power,  chs.  VII,  XI- XV,  XVIII. 
Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  New  Nation,  ch.  XVII. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  The  United  States,  II,  ch.  XVIII. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS   FOR   TEACHERS 

1.  Modern  Agricultural  Methods.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic 
History  of  the  United  States,  chs.  XX,  XXIII. 

2.  Commercial  Expansion.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States,  ch.  XXXII. 

3.  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic 
History  of  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXIII  ;  Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  The 
Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  in  the  United  States. 

4.  The  Initiative  and  Referendum.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Govern- 
ment and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  pp.  102-103  ;  McLaughlin, 
A.  C,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  ch.  LXV  ; 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United 
States,  ch.  XXII. 

5.  The  Conduct  of  Political  Campaigns.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Gov- 
ernment and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  ch.  XXXVII  ;  McLaugh- 
lin, A.  C.,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation,  chs.  LXVI- 
LXVIII  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in 
the  United  States,  chs.  XI- XIV,  XIX. 

6.  Present-Day  Parties  and  Issues.  Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Govern- 
ment and  Politics  in  the  United  States,  pp.  459-462  ;  Paxson,  F.  L., 
The  New  Nation,  ch.  XX  ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and 
Party  Problems  in  the  United  States,  ch.  IX. 

7.  The  Panama  Canal.  Coolidge,  A.  C.,  The  United  States  as  a 
World  Power,  ch.  XV  ;  Latane,  J.  H.,  America  as  a  World  Power, 
ch.   XII. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
THE   PROGRESS   OF  A  HALF   CENTURY,    1865-1915 

Population  and  Industrial  Life.  The  half  century  since  the 
Civil  War  has  been  an  era  of  marvelous  growth  and  prosperity. 
Since  1865  our  population  has  trebled,  and  to-day  more  than  one 
hundred  million  people  live  in  the  United  States.  Much  of  this 
increase  is  due  to  immigration,  for  Europe  has  sent  us  twenty 
millions  of  her  population  since  1870.  The  peopling  of  the  West 
has  added  twelve  new  states  to  the  Union,  so  that  our  flag  now 
has  forty-eight  stars.  Progress  in  industry  has  been  even  more 
rapid  than  the  growth  in  population.  The  value  of  our  agricul- 
tural products  is  four  times  as  great  as  in  1865,  while  the  value 
of  our  manufactures  has  been  multiplied  by  ten.  Until  the 
close  of  the  war,  agriculture  was  still  our  dominant  industry ; 
but  to-day  the  United  States  is  the  foremost  manufacturing 
nation  of  the  world.  As  a  result  of  this  growth  of  manufactures, 
nearly  as  many  of  our  people  now  live  in  cities  as  in  the  country. 
Meantime,  life  on  the  farm,  as  well  as  in  the  cities,  has  been 
transformed  through  the  use  of  modern  inventions  and  improved 
methods  of  production. 

Our  Supremacy  in  Agriculture.  Our  country's  wonderful 
development  in  agriculture  during  the  last  fifty  years  is  due 
chiefly  to  three  causes  : 

(1)  The  opening  up  of  new  lands  in  the  West  under  the 
Homestead  Act,  and  the  increased  number  of  small  farms  in  the 
South. 

(2)  The  use  of  improved  machinery,  so  that  one  farm 
laborer  to-day  can  do  the  work  of  five  men  in  1865. 

(3)  More  intelligent  farming,  largely  the  result  of  the  work 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  of  the  state  agriculture 
colleges  and  experiment  stations. 

554 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  A  HALF  CENTURY 


555 


Agriculture  as  a  Science.  Our  national  Department  of  Agri- 
culture was  established  in  1862.  This  department  now  em- 
ploys about  fifteen  thousand  persons  who  give  expert  aid  to 
farmers  on  such  questions  as  soil  management,  drainage,  irri- 
gation, the  breeding  of  live  stock,  the  destruction  of  insect 
pests,  and  the  prevention  of  disease  among  sheep  and  cattle. 
Our  farmers  have  learned  to  rotate  their  crops  so  as  to  prevent 
soil  exhaustion,  and  to  keep  careful  records  of  costs  in  order  to 
know  which  crop  pays  best.     This  scientific  knowledge,  together 


y 


Stock  Raising,  Sierra  Bonita  Ranch,  Arizona 


with  such  improvements  as  the  self -binding  reaper,  the  gasoline 
motor  for  plowing  and  cultivating,  the  wire  fence,  the  inter- 
urban  railway,  improved  roads,  the  automobile,  the  telephone, 
and  rural  free  delivery,  have  all  combined  to  revolutionize  farm 
life. 

To-day  corn  instead  of  cotton  is  king  of  our  agricultural  crops. 
The  value  of  our  corn  crop  in  1910  was  $1,400,000,000,  while 
the  cotton  crop  was  worth  $700,000,000.  The  United  States 
leads  the  world  in  the  production  of  corn  and  cotton,  and  holds 
second  rank  in  the  production  of  wheat  and  oats.     Three  fourths 


h 


556       THE    UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD  POWER 

of  our  corn  crop  is  fed  to  live  stock,  and  comes  to  the  market  in 
the  form  of  beef,  pork,  and  dairy  products.  Cotton  is  still  our 
chief  agricultural  export ;  of  this  product  the  South  grows  sixty 
per  cent  of  the  world's  supply. 

Our  Position  as  a  Manufacturing  Nation.  The  enormous 
growth  of  manufactures  since  the  Civil  War  is  the  most  striking 
fact  in  our  industrial  history.  Our  country  held  fourth  place 
among  the  manufacturing  nations  of  the  world  in  1865 ;  while 
thirty  years  later,  the  United  States  had  won  first  place,  our 
present  position.  This  industrial  supremacy  is  the  result  of 
many  advantages : 

(1)  Our  vast  territory,  with  its  immense  agricultural  and 
mineral  resources. 

(2)  A  magnificent  system  of  inland  waterways,  supplemented 
by  the  largest  railway  system  in  the  world. 

(3)  The  concentration  of  manufacturing  in  large  plants, 
making  possible  large  capital,  expensive  machinery,  minute 
subdivision  of  labor,  and  the  many  economies  of  large-scale 
production. 

(4)  The  American  genius  for  invention. 

(5)  The  energy  and  efficiency  of  our  workers,  trained  under 
a  system  of  free  education. 

New  Uses  for  Steel.  Our  iron  and  steel  industry  has  made 
wonderful  progress  since  1864.  Bessemer's  discovery  of  a  cheap 
process  of  converting  iron  into  steel  wrought  a  revolution  in  this 
industry,  and  steel  began  to  supplant  iron  for  general  use.  The 
frames  of  our  large  office  buildings  are  now  built  of  steel,  the 
railroads  use  steel  instead  of  iron  rails,  the  cars  and  locomotives 
are  built  of  steel,  while  our  ocean  liners  and  freight  steamers 
are  steel  ships.  For  these  and  a  thousand  other  uses,  including 
tools  and  machinery  of  every  kind,  steel  is  the  one  indispensable 
material.  Between  1890  and  1910,  the  annual  capacity  of  our 
steel  mills  increased  from  twenty  thousand  tons  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  tons.  Cheap  iron  ore,  cheap  coal,  and 
cheap  water  transportation  to  bring  them  together,  are  the 
factors  which  have  made  the  United  States  the  world's  chief 
producer  of  steel.      Another  important  factor  is  large-scale 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  A   HALF   CENTURY  557 

production  with  its  many  advantages.  The  United  States 
Steel  Corporation,  with  its  capital  of  $1,400,000,000,  has  brought 
under  one  management  iron  and  coal  mines,  railways  and 
steamers,  coke-oven  and  blast  furnaces,  steel  plants  and  machine 
shops. 

Progress  in  Other  Industries.  Steel  is  not  the  only  industry 
in  which  the  United  States  leads  the  world.  Our  cotton  mills 
employ  four  hundred  thousand  hands,  and  each  year  produce 
goods  worth  over  $600,000,000.  Our  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing industry,  centered  in  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha, 
has  an  annual  output  valued  at  over  one  billion  dollars.     Our 


Courtesy  of  the  Armour  Company. 

The  Armour  Meat -Packing  Plant,  Chicago 

This  plant  covers  98  acres  of  city  blocks. 

annual  output  of  lumber  products  also  exceeds  the  billion-dollar 
mark.  With  the  increased  use  of  electricity  for  lighting,  power, 
and  transportation,  our  copper  industry  has  expanded  until  it  is 
equal  to  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world  combined.  The  United 
States  mines  more  coal  than  any  other  country,  produces  more 
petroleum  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  has  nearly  two 
fifths  of  the  world's  railway  mileage  with  which  to  transport  its 
products  to  market. 

Our  Great  Industrial  Sections.  The  census  of  1910  gives  a 
list  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  manufacturing  industries 
in  which  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  engaged.  Eighteen 
of  these  have  an  annual  product  valued  at  more  than  $300,000,- 
000.  These  industries  are  scattered  over  the  whole  country, 
but  four  states  surpass  all  others  as  manufacturing  states. 


558       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

These  are  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Massachusetts, 
each  of  which  in  1910  produced  manufactures  valued  at  more 
than  $1,500,000,000.  Two  other  states,  Ohio  and  New  Jersey, 
had  products  valued  at  over  one  billion  dollars. 

Some  industries  are  confined  not  only  to  a  certain  state,  but 
to  a  particular  city  which  has  specialized  upon  the  production 
of  some  commodity.  For  example,  Minneapolis  is  famous  for 
its  flour  mills ;  Omaha  for  its  meat-packing  industry ;  Grand 
Rapids  for  its  furniture ;  Detroit  for  automobiles ;  Pittsburgh 
for  iron  and  steel  products ;  Paterson  for  silk  goods  ;  Waltham 
for  watches ;  Lynn  for  boots  and  shoes ;  and  Providence  for 
jewelry.  This  localization  of  industries,  as  it  is  called,  may  be 
due  to  the  nearness  of  the  raw  material,  or  to  the  presence  of 
coal  fields.  In  some  industries,  as  in  cotton  manufacturing,  an 
even,  moist  climate,  like  that  of  Fall  River  and  New  Bedford,  is  a 
favorable  condition.  With  other  advantages  equal,  industries 
are  more  likely  to  locate  where  laborers  are  numerous  and 
efficient,  and  where  capital  is  easily  available. 

The  Age  of  Electricity.  Electricity  has  come  to  be  of  such 
importance  in  modern  industry  that  the  period  since  the  Civil 
War  is  sometimes  called  the  "  age  of  electricity."  After  several 
unsuccessful  attempts,  the  first  telegraph  cable  was  laid  across 
the  Atlantic  in  the  year  1866.  At  the  Centennial  Exposition 
in  1876,  Alexander  Graham  Bell  exhibited  his  new  invention, 
the  telephone.  Beginning  about  1880,  the  dynamo  came  into 
general  use  for  the  purpose  of  generating  electricity  on  a  large 
scale.  The  dynamo  is  commonly  driven  by  means  of  a  steam  or 
gasoline  engine,  or  by  a  water  wheel ;  and  the  electric  current 
which  it  generates  can  be  carried  long  distances  by  wire,  and 
sold  to  consumers  for  use  as  light  or  power.  By  means  of  a 
motor,  the  electric  current  is  used  to  drive  machinery;  for 
example,  the  Niagara  River  furnishes  the  electric  current  which 
lights  the  streets  and  buildings  of  Buffalo,  and  runs  its  factories. 
By  1895,  nearly  all  of  the  street  cars  in  the  country  were  being 
moved  by  electric  motors,  instead  of  by  horses.  Then  followed 
the  rapid  construction  of  electric  interurban  lines,  uniting  city 
with  country  as  never  before.     Arc  lighting  was  introduced 


THE   PROGRESS  OP  A  HALF   CENTURY  550 

in  1880,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  use  of  the  incandescent 
filament  which  to-day  lights  thousands  of  homes  throughout  the 
country. 

Scientists  had  long  known  that  electricity  travels  through 
space  without  the  necessity  of  using  a  wire.  Finally,  in  1896 
an  Italian  scientist,  Marconi,  invented  a  wireless  apparatus  for 
telegraphing  through  space.  Soon  wireless  messages  could  be 
sent  across  the  Atlantic,  or  from  ship  to  ship  on  mid-ocean. 


'  ViK \                   *       /y&K?Vjft        nhl           \V« 

ftJL 

iv^wn 

.,.   -^    -TTyii     fP'f 

©  Harris  and  Ewing. 

The  Arlington  Wireless  Towers  near  Washington,  D.C. 
Messages  are  easily  sent  to  and  received  from  Paris. 

Later  experiments  in  wireless  telephony  made  it  possible  to  send 
the  human  voice  across  the  ocean ;  and  in  1919  a  Marconi 
engineer  seated  in  a  wireless  station  in  Ireland  talked  with  an 
operator  in  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  field  of  surgery,  a  new  use  for 
electricity  has  been  found  in  the  X-ray,  a  device  which  enables 
the  surgeon  to  photograph  the  bones  of  a  living  body. 

An  Age  of  Inventions.  Many  other  wonderful  inventions 
and  discoveries  belong  to  the  half  century  following  the  Civil 
War.     These  include  the  Westinghouse  air-brake,  the  Janney 


560       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


car-coupler,  the  compressed-air  drill,  dynamite,  the  barbed-wire 
fence,  the  machine  for  making  tin  cans,  the  Owens  bottle- 
making  machine,  the  gas  engine,  the  automobile,  the  passenger 
elevator,  the  typewriter,  the  dictaphone,  the  cash  register,  the 
adding  machine,  the  phonograph,  the  moving  picture,  and  a 
thousand  other  devices  that  have  transformed  industrial  and 
social  life.     In  a  single  year  (1912),  our  government  granted 

thirty-five  thousand  patents 
to  inventors.  Modern  war- 
fare was  made  more  deadly 
by  the  introduction  of  high 
explosives,  by  the  invention 
of  the  machine  gun,  the  sub- 
marine, the  aeroplane,  and 
the  dirigible  balloon.  The 
Wright  brothers  of  Day- 
ton, Ohio,  constructed  the 
first  successful  aeroplane  in 
1903. 

Expositions  or  World's 
Fairs.  This  wonderful  prog- 
ress in  science  and  industry, 
as  well  as  in  education  and 
the  fine  arts,  was  exhibited 
in  a  series  of  magnificent 
expositions.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  held  at  Chi- 
cago in  1893,  marked  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
discovery  of  America.  The  Exposition  was  to  have  been  held 
in  1892,  the  anniversary  year  of  the  discovery,  but  the  magni- 
tude of  the  preparations  delayed  the  opening  until  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  site  chosen  was  Jackson  Park  on  the  lake  front, 
the  largest  building  being  that  devoted  to  manufactures  and 
liberal  arts,  which  covered  forty-four  acres.  It  is  estimated 
that  twelve  million  people  saw  the  wonderful  exhibits,  which 
were  planned  to  show  the  progress  of  the  world  since  the  time 
of  Columbus.  For  example,  in  the  transportation  building  were 
shown  the  old  Conestoga  wagon  and  the  stage  coach  of  one 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  Orville  Wright. 

Wilbur  Wright 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  A  HALF  CENTURY  561 

hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  side  by  side  with  a  huge  modern 
locomotive. 

Eight  years  later  a  great  Pan-American  Exposition  was  held 
at  Buffalo  (1901).  This  aimed  to  show  the  world  the  resources 
and  achievements  of  the  American  continents,  also  to  promote 
closer  trade  relations  between  the  United  States  and  the  coun- 
tries of  Central  and  South  America.  In  the  year  1904,  the 
one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  was 
celebrated  by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

The  Tower  of  Jewels  illuminated  by  searchlights  at  the  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition,  San  Francisco,  191 5 

There  were  125,000  jewels  or  "novagems"  used  to  decorate  the  tower,  and 
behind  each  jewel  was  a  reflecting  mirror  the  size  of  a  twenty-five  cent  piece. 

In  the  following  year,  an  exposition  at  Portland,  Oregon,  marked 
the  anniversary  of  the  journey  of  Lewis  and  Clark  to  the 
Columbia  River  Valley.  The  last,  and  in  some  respects  the 
greatest,  of  the  series  of  world's  fairs  was  the  Panama-Pacific 
International  Exposition,  held  at  San  Francisco  in  1915. 

Foreign  Commerce.  Our  foreign  trade  is  seven  times  as 
large  as  in  1860.  Before  the  Civil  War,  we  bought  more  goods 
from  other  countries  than  we  sold  to  them,  paying  for  the 
difference  in  gold  or  in  securities.  Now  the  balance  of  trade,  as 
it  is  called,  is  largely  in  our  favor.     This  means  that  the  United 


562       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

States  is  no  longer  a  borrowing  country,  but  has  an  industrial 
surplus.  European  countries  are  debtors,  not  creditors,  of  the 
United  States.  Before  the  great  World  War,  less  than  one 
tenth  of  our  immense  foreign  trade  was  carried  in  American 
ships.  The  destruction  in  a  single  year  of  more  than  six  million 
tons  of  shipping  by  German  submarines  made  it  necessary  for 
the  United  States  to  enter  upon  a  shipbuilding  program  of 
gigantic  proportions.  Within  a  few  years,  our  country  regained 
its  early  position  as  one  of  the  great  carrying  nations  of  the  world. 

Remarkable  Growth  of  American  Cities.  The  rapid  growth 
of  cities  is  one  of  the  most  striking  facts  in  our  history.  When 
Washington  was  President,  only  about  three  per  cent  of  the 
population  lived  in  cities;  at  present  nearly  one  half  of  our 
people  are  city  residents.  In  1790  there  were  only  six  cities 
with  over  10,000  population ;  to-day  there  are  six  hundred  and 
three  such  cities.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  Philadel- 
phia was  the  largest  city,  with  about  30,000  people ;  the  last 
census  gave  greater  New  York  a  population  of  4,766,483,  and 
eighteen  other  cities  a  population  of  over  250,000.  During 
the  decade  from  1900  to  1910,  the  urban  population  of  the  United 
States  increased  more  than  three  times  as  fast  as  the  rural 
population. 

This  increase  in  urban  population  is  due  chiefly  to  the  develop- 
ment of  great  manufacturing  industries,  employing  thousands 
of  workmen.  In  addition  to  large  numbers  of  native  workers, 
these  industries  attract  hosts  of  immigrants  from  Europe. 
Then,  too,  large  numbers  of  people  are  drawn  from  the  country 
to  the  city  on  account  of  the  larger  business  opportunities  which 
city  life  seems  to  promise ;  while  others  come  in  search  of  better 
educational  and  social  advantages. 

Problems  Confronting  Our  Cities.  Many  serious  problems 
have  resulted  from  this  wonderful  growth  of  our  cities.  First, 
there  is  the  question  of  providing  school  accommodations  for 
the  rapidly  increasing  number  of  cit}'  children.  The  problem 
of  education  in  the  large  industrial  cities  is  made  more  difficult 
by  the  annual  arrival  of  thousands  of  immigrants,  whose 
children  must  be  transformed  through  the  public  school  system 


y 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  A  HALF  CENTURY  563 

into  intelligent  and  loyal  American  citizens.  Then,  especially 
in  the  larger  cities,  there  is  a  serious  housing  problem.  In 
great  centers  of  population  like  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  a 
thousand  people  sometimes  dwell  in  a  single  city  block,  and  there 
are  hundreds  of  families  each  living  in  a  single  room.  This 
congestion  of  population  in  the  tenements  invites  disease,  and  is 
a  constant  menace  to  the  health  and  morals  of  the  entire  city. 
Hence  the  question  of  regulating  tenements,  and  indeed  the 
whole  problem  of  protecting  the  city's  health,  becomes  a  matter 
of  vital  public  concern. 

Another  difficult  municipal  question  is  that  of  transportation. 
Rapidly  growing  cities  require  enlarged  transportation  facilities, 
in  order  that  the  thousands  of  toilers  may  be  able  to  reach  their 
work ;  hence  our  largest  cities,  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  and 
Philadelphia,  have  built  elevated  railroads,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  surface  car-lines.  New  York  and  Boston  have  also  pro- 
vided immense  subway  systems.  Other  difficulties  arise  from 
the  rapid  growth  of  cities  to  a  size  not  anticipated  when  the  cifcy 
was  founded.  The  lack  of  adequate  provision  for  parks  and 
public  squares,  the  failure  to  provide  wide  business  streets  and 
boulevards,  and  to  reserve  land  for  public  buildings,  often 
necessitates  reconstructing  certain  portions  of  the  city  at  a  large 
expense. 

Our  Most  Serious  Municipal  Problem.  The  solution  of  these 
problems  is  made  more  difficult  by  the  fact  that  city  residents 
are  not  acquainted  with  one  another,  as  in  the  country.  Even 
candidates  for  the  ward  offices  are  often  unknown  to  the  majority 
of  voters  within  the  ward ;  and  too  often  voters  blindly  cast  a 
partisan  ballot,  regardless  of  the  merits  of  the  candidates. 
So  numerous  are  the  officials,  and  so  complicated  is  the  question 
of  responsibility  for  results,  that  voters  cannot  readily  detect 
mismanagement  of  the  city's  business.  Hence,  although  our 
municipal  governments  spend  more  money  in  proportion  to  the 
population  than  either  the  state  or  national  governments,  city 
residents  often  become  indifferent  concerning  the  management 
of  public  affairs.  Frequently  they  permit  professional  politi- 
cians to  run  the  city  government  to  please  themselves. 


-/ 


564       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

The  Commission  Plan  of  City  Government.  The  large  num- 
ber of  city  officials,  and  the  distribution  of  authority  among 
many  boards  and  officers,  makes  it  difficult  to  hold  any  one 
responsible  for  the  management  of  the  city's  business.  One  of 
the  most  promising  means  of  correcting  this  condition  is  known 
as  the  commission  plan  of  city  government.  Under  this  plan, 
the  entire  city  administration  is  intrusted  to  commissioners, 
usually  five  in  number,  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  city.  One 
of  the  commissioners  has  the  title  of  mayor,  and  has  general 
supervision  over  the  entire  administration.  Each  of  the  other 
commissioners  has  charge  of  one  of  the  four  city  departments : 
(1)  the  department  of  finance,  (2)  that  of  waterworks  and 
sewers,  (3)  police  and  fire  protection,  and  (4)  streets  and  public 
property.  All  of  the  commissioners  meet  together  to  pass 
ordinances,  to  make  important  appointments,  vote  appropria- 
tions, and  award  contracts. 

The  commission  plan  does  away  with  the  city  council,  and 
makes  the  government  of  the  city  more  like  that  of  a  business 
corporation,  which  intrusts  large  powers  to  a  small  board  of 
directors.  Thus  it  has  the  great  merit  of  definitely  locating 
responsibility  for  the  city's  administration.  More  than  five 
hundred  cities  have  now  adopted  some  form  of  commission 
government,  and  the  system  is  rapidly  growing  in  public  favor. 

The  City-Manager  Plan.  Within  recent  years,  many  cities 
have  adopted  a  still  different  system,  known  as  the  city-manager 
plan.  Under  this  plan,  the  voters  elect  three  or  five  commis- 
sioners ;  but  instead  of  carrying  on  the  administration  them- 
selves, the  commissioners  employ  a  city  manager  for  this  work. 
The  city-manager  plan  aims  to  secure  expert  service  in  carrying 
on  the  city's  business,  in  the  same  way  that  a  corporation 
employs  a  capable  manager  for  its  affairs.  Dayton,  Ohio,  is 
the  largest  city  that  employs  a  city  manager. 

The  New  Education.  The  chief  merit  of  the  early  district 
school  system  was  that  it  placed  elementary  education  easily 
within  the  reach  of  all.  Its  drawback  was  that  pupils  of  all  ages 
and  grades  were  taught  by  one  teacher,  who  could  give  only  a 
small  amount  of  time  to  each  class.     To  overcome  this  dis- 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  A  HALF  CENTURY 


565 


advantage,  all  the  district  schools  of  the  township  are  now  often 
consolidated  in  one  centrally  located  building,  with  several 
teachers.  By  this  plan,  pupils  can  be  graded,  and  the  different 
classes  placed  in  separate  rooms ;  and  at  the  same  time,  better 
paid  and  better  trained  teachers  can  be  employed.  Township 
or  union  high  schools  are  also  established  on  this  plan,  since 
it  is  impossible  for  each  small  district  to  support  a  separate 
high  school.  The  disadvan- 
tage of  consolidating  rural 
schools  is  the  distance  that 
pupils  must  travel  to  reach 
the  centralized  school.  This 
difficulty  has  been  met  in 
many  communities  by  pro- 
viding a  wagon  which  trans- 
ports pupils  to  and  from 
school. 

Administration  of  City 
Schools.  Each  city  ordi- 
narily constitutes  a  sepa- 
rate school  district,  with  its 
own  board  of  education 
chosen  by  the  voters,  as  in 
the  case  of  rural  schools. 
This  board  employs  the 
superintendent  and  teach- 
ers, purchases  school  sites, 
erects  and  maintains  build- 
ings, and  sometimes  furnishes  the  textbooks  and  supplies  used 
by  the  pupils.  The  elementary  school  buildings  usually  con- 
tain from  eight  to  forty  rooms,  the  classes  being  graded  from 
the  primary  room  through  the  eighth  grade  (or,  through  the 
sixth  grade,  in  case  the  city  has  adopted  the  Junior  High  School 
plan).  Kindergartens  are  often  provided  for  children  between 
the  ages  of  four  and  six  years  ;  special  instructors  supervise  the 
work  in  manual  training,  domestic  science,  sewing,  drawing, 
music,  physical  training,  and  penmanship;  playgrounds  are 


Courtesy  of  George  H.  Palmer. 

Alice  Freeman  Palmer 

As  President  of  Wellesley  College,  Mrs. 
Palmer  became  one  of  our  foremost  mod- 
ern educators. 


566       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 


equipped  in  connection  with  each  building ;  special  classes  care 
for  children  who  are  backward  or  mentally  defective;  school 
physicians  and  nurses  endeavor  to  guard  against  contagious 
disease,  and  to  raise  the  physical  standard  of  pupils ;  open-air 
schools  are  maintained  for  children  who  are  threatened  with 
tuberculosis ;  while  night  classes  offer  educational  opportunities 
to  those  unable  to  attend  day  school  on  account  of  their  em- 
ployment. 

City  High  Schools.     In  addition  to  its  elementary  schools, 
every  city  maintains  one  or  more  high  schools.     These  are 


Courtesy  of  W.  M.  Davidson. 

The  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh 

Among  the  finest  in  architecture  and  equipment. 

often  housed  in  splendid  buildings,  which  cost  from  $400,000  in 
the  smaller  cities  to  $1,500,000  in  the  larger  ones.  The  high 
school  course  comprises  four  years  of  study,  following  the  eight 
years  of  the  elementary  schools ;  or  three  years,  if  the  Junior 
High  School  plan  has  been  adopted.  The  modern  high  school 
has  been  called  the  "  people's  college  " ;  and  the  work  of  these 
schools  to-day  is  more  than  equivalent  to  that  of  the  colleges  of 
forty  years  ago.  Most  high  schools  offer  several  courses  of 
study,  from  which  the  pupil  may  choose  the  one  that  he  wishes 
to  follow.  Well-equipped  laboratories  are  provided  for  work 
in  chemistry,  physics,  physiology,  and  the  other  sciences ;  while 
many  high  schools  have  a  splendid   equipment  for  work  in 


THE   PROGRESS   OP  A   HALF   CENTURY  567 

manual  training,  domestic  science  and  art,  commercial  branches, 
and  other  practical  subjects. 

State  Educational  Department.  In  most  commonwealths 
there  is  a  state  superintendent  or  commissioner  of  schools, 
elected  by  the  voters  of  the  state  or  appointed  by  the  governor. 
This  officer  collects  statistics,  inspects  school  systems,  reports 
to  the  legislature  or  governor  concerning  the  needs  of  the  schools, 
and  in  general  looks  after  the  educational  interests  of  the  entire 
state.  In  some  commonwealths  there  is  a  state  board  of  educa- 
tion with  important  duties,  such  as  preparing  courses  of  study, 
examining  teachers,  and  sometimes  selecting  uniform  textbooks 
for  use  throughout  the  state. 

Compulsory  Education  Laws.  In  our  country,  education  is 
considered  not  only  a  privilege,  but  a  duty.  Hence,  nearly  all  of 
the  states  have  compulsory  education  laws  that  require  all 
children  from  eight  to  fourteen,  or  from  eight  to  sixteen  years  of 
age,  to  attend  school.  The  employment  in  industry  of  children 
under  fourteen  or  sixteen  years  is  generally  prohibited ;  and  a 
fine  may  be  imposed  upon  parents  or  employers  who  violate  the 

law.     The  object  of  compulsory  education  is  to  protect  the 

state  from  ignorance  by  assuring  each  child  at  least  the  elements 
of  an  education. 

State  Universities.  In  addition  to  the  many  private  colleges 
and  universities  throughout  the  Union,  forty  commonwealths 
maintain  state  universities  which  students  may  enter  upon 
completing  their  high  school  course.  The  state  universities 
offer  a  wide  variety  of  courses  in  order  to  equip  their  students 
for  many  different  pursuits,  —  for  business  life,  teaching,  law, 
medicine,  pharmacy,  engineering,  forestry,  and  agriculture. 
These  institutions  aim  to  make  their  work  practical,  and  directly 
related  to  the  life  of  the  people  of  the  state.  They  seek  to  im- 
prove agricultural  methods,  to  advance  manufacturing  interests, 
and  to  raise  the  standard  of  education  and  health  among  the 
people. 

American  Literature.  In  literature  there  are  many  great 
names  in  the  period  since  the  Civil  War.  As  a  humorist, 
Samuel  L.  Clemens,  better  known  as  Mark  Twain,  has  a  world- 


568       THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

wide  reputation.  Among  the  writers  of  prose  fiction,  William 
Dean  Howells  and  Bret  Harte  have  produced  work  worthy  of 
the  masters  of  the  earlier  period ;  while  other  famous  names  are 
those  of  Henry  James,  Francis  Marion  Crawford,  and  a  group 
of  southern  writers,  George  W.  Cable,  Joel  Chandler  Harris, 
Thomas  Nelson  Page,  and  James  Lane  Allen.  Among  the  poets 
are  Sidney  Lanier,  Eugene  Field,  Walt  Whitman,  and  James 
Whitcomb  Riley.  Such  historians  as  Francis  Parkman,  John 
Fiske,  John  Bach  McMaster,  and  James  Ford  Rhodes,  have 
continued  the  work  so  well  begun  by  Bancroft,  Prescott,  and 
Motley. 

Within  recent  years  New  York  City  has  become  the  mecca 
for  authors  from  all  over  the  country.  Among  the  poets  whose 
work  was  written  in  the  metropolis  are  Bayard  Taylor,  Thomas 
Bailey  Aldrich,  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman,  and  Richard 
Watson  Gilder.  Our  most  gifted  essayists  during  the  period 
since  the  Civil  War  are  George  William  Curtis,  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson,  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  and  Donald  Grant 
Mitchell.  Two  masters  of  the  short  story  are  Edward  Everett 
Hale,  who  wrote  The  Man  Without  a  Country,  and  Francis 
Richard  Stockton,  author  of  The  Lady  or  the  Tiger  f  Among 
the  New  England  writers  famous  in  the  field  of  the  short  story 
are  Celia  Thaxter,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps,  Sarah  Orne  Jewett, 
and  Mary  E.  Wilkins-Freeman. 

REFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS 

Andrews,  E.  B.,  The   United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  ch.  XXII. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the   United  States,  chs. 

IV-VI. 
Sparks,  E.  E.,  National  Development,  chs.  I— III. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Barstow,  C.  L.,  The  Progress  of  a  United  People,  pp.  146-153. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Preparing  for  Citizenship,  ch.  X. 
Mowry,  W.  A.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  111-116,  252- 
297. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 
DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL   IN   THE   WORLD    WAR 

The  Rise  of  Modern  Germany.  At  the  Hague  Conference 
of  1907,  one  power  had  voted  against  every  proposal  to  reduce 
the  size  of  Europe's  great  armies  and  navies.  That  power  was 
the  German  Empire,  voicing  the  will  of  Prussia,  its  largest  and 
most  powerful  state.  Prussia  owed  its  own  existence  largely 
to  successful  wars,  and  the  German  Empire  owed  its  existence 
to  Prussia.  From  a  second-rate  power  in  1860,  Prussia  rose 
under  Bismarck's  policy  of  "  blood  and  iron  "  to  become  the 
strongest  military  force  in  Europe.  Bismarck  accomplished 
this  result  by  means  of  a  military  system  which  compelled  every 
man  in  the  country  to  serve  a  certain  number  of  years  in  the 
army,  and  to  be  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  join  his  regiment 
if  there  came  a  call  to  war.  With  a  great  military  machine 
fully  organized  and  equipped,  Bismarck  was  ready  for  the 
aggressive  wars  by  which  he  meant  to  make  Prussia  the  ac- 
knowledged leader  of  Germany.  Aided  by  Austria,  Prussia 
in  1864  tore  from  Denmark  the  provinces  of  Schleswig-Holstein ; 
next  Austria  herself  was  crushed  by  Prussia,  and  ousted  from 
the  German  Confederation  (1866) ;  and  finally  France  was 
vanquished,  robbed  of  two  of  her  richest  provinces,  and  com- 
pelled to  pay  a  huge  war  indemnity  as  the  price  of  peace.  While 
his  victorious  armies  were  laying  siege  to  Paris,  the  king  of 
Prussia  was  crowned  German  Emperor  in  the  ancient  palace 
of  the  French  kings  at  Versailles  (1871). 

Out  of  these  three  successful  wars,  modern  Germany  emerged 
with  boundaries  greatly  enlarged,  and  with  an  implicit  belief 
in  war  and  military  force  as  the  best  means  of  advancing  her 
national  power.  Bismarck's  policy  appeared  fully  vindicated, 
although  it  was  a  policy  of  fraud  and  trickery  as  well  as  of  blood 

569 


570       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

and  iron.  Bismarck  had  muzzled  the  press  of  Prussia,  bullied 
its  parliament,  and  overridden  the  will  of  its  people;  but 
Germany  readily  forgave  his  methods  in  view  of  the  great 
material  gains  from  his  policy.  The  constitution  of  the  new 
empire  gave  the  German  people  almost  no  political  power ;  for 
the  Reichstag  or  Parliament  was  only  a  great  debating  society, 
the  real  rulers  being  the  emperor  and  the  Prussian  military 
leaders. 

The  German  Attitude  toward  War.  In  the  half  century 
that  followed  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  the  German  people 
patiently  endured  the  burden  of  immense  standing  armies  and 
the  expenditures  for  a  greater  navy.  They  accepted  this  situa- 
tion because  they  had  been  carefully  educated  to  look  upon  war 
as  something  inevitable,  as  necessary  to  the  future  greatness 
of  Germany.  The  schools  throughout  the  empire  mutilated 
the  facts  of  history  and  geography  to  teach  the  children  of 
Germany  that  France  was  a  nation  of  weaklings,  Russia  a 
nation  of  slaves;  that  most  of  the  peoples  of  Europe  were 
descended  from  Germans,  and  should  be  united  within  the 
empire ;  and  finally  that  Germany  must  have  larger  boundaries, 
a  result  which  could  only  be  accomplished  by  a  victorious  war. 
The  powerful  military  leaders,  aided  by  the  German  press, 
preached  the  doctrine  that  war  is  a  necessity,  "  an  ordinance 
of  God  for  the  weeding  out  of  weak  and  incompetent  individuals 
and  States."  Thus  modern  Germany  came  to  believe  that  a 
nation  is  not  great  unless  it  has  military  power ;  and  that  this 
power  gives  it  the  right  to  deal  with  weaker  nations  as  it  chooses. 
If  a  weaker  people  possesses  anything  that  the  rulers  of  a  stronger 
people  want,  those  rulers  need  only  plead  military  necessity, 
and  no  law  of  man  or  God  may  stay  them  from  working  their 
will.  "  Might  makes  right,"  said  the  German  militarist, 
"  and  the  dispute  as  to  what  is  right  is  to  be  decided  by  war." 

Germany's  Curious  Notion  of  Race  Superiority.  Along  with 
this  doctrine  that  might  makes  right,  that  war  is  "  a  beautiful 
and  holy  thing,"  the  Germans  were  taught  another  curious 
theory.  .This  was  that  the  German  race  is  a  race  of  superior 
beings  as  compared  with  other  peoples;     that  its  civilization 


DEMOCRACY   ON  TRIAL  571 

( Kultur)  is  superior  to  all  other  civilizations ;  and  hence  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  Germany  to  civilize  and  Germanize  the  world  ! 
"God  has  called  us  to  civilize  the  world/'  declared  Emperor 
William  II ;  "we  are  the  missionaries  of  human  progress." 
It  is  not  strange  that  this  people,  feeling  themselves  to  be 
superior  beings,  came  to  believe  that  Germany  did  not  possess 
the  colonies,  the  commerce,  and  the  influence  which  such  a 
superior  nation  ought  to  have.  "  It  is  only  by  relying  on  our 
good  German  sword,"  wrote  the  Crown  Prince,  "  that  we  can 
hope  to  conquer  that  place  in  the  sun  which  rightly  belongs  to 
us.  Till  the  world  comes  to  an  end,  the  ultimate  decision  must 
rest  with  the  sword." 

Germany's  Dream  of  World  Empire.  Inspired  by  these 
ideals,  the  military  party  which  ruled  Germany  had  for  many 
years  planned  an  aggressive  war  which  should  give  Germany 
her  place  as  the  foremost  world  power.  Not  content  with  the 
provinces  of  Alsace-Lorraine  which  she  had  wrested  from  France 
in  1871,  Germany  planned  in  this  new  war  to  steal  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  France  and  to  annex  the  whole  of  Belgium. 
This  would  give  her  immense  fields  of  coal  and  iron  ore,  so  nec- 
essary for  industry,  and  especially  for  the  manufacture  of 
armaments  ;  while  the  seizure  of  the  Channel  ports  would  enable 
her  to  hold  a  dagger  at  the  heart  of  England.  For  Britain, 
with  her  world  empire,  was  the  enemy  which  Germany  ex- 
pected to  attack  eventually,  although  she  hoped  that  this  would 
be  in  a  later  war,  after  France  and  Russia  were  crushed.  For 
was  not  England,  a  nation  of  tradespeople,  among  whom  war 
was  not  glorified,  already  becoming  decrepit?  Was  she  not  a 
"  colossus  with  feet  of  clay,"  whose  world  empire  would  crumble 
before  the  might  of  the  rising  power  in  Central  Europe  ?  So  the 
favorite  toast  among  German  officers  was  to  der  Tag,  the  day 
on  which  the  British  fleet  should  be  beaten,  and  London  oc- 
cupied by  a  victorious  German  army. 

And  after  Britain,  then  America,  peace-loving,  idealistic, 
defenseless  America,  was  to  be  taken  in  hand,  and  taught  her 
proper  and  subordinate  place  in  a  world  ruled  by  German 
power.     "  I  shall  tolerate  no  more  nonsense  from  America 


572       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


after  this  war !  "  said  Kaiser  Wilhelm  to  our  Ambassador 
Gerard,  when  President  Wilson  protested  against  the  murder 
of  American  citizens  on  the  high  seas. 

The  Spoils  of  a  Successful  War.  On  her  eastern  frontier, 
Germany's  spoils  of  war  were  to  be  Russia's  Baltic  provinces, 
together  with  the  territory  to  the  southward ;  while  Russian 
Poland  was  to  become  a  vassal  German  state.     A  victorious 

Germany  would  then,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  dominate 
Austria-Hungary,  Turkey, 
the  Balkan  states,  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  thus  form  a 
great  Middle-Europe  Em- 
pire extending  from  the 
North  Sea  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Nor  did  Germany 
intend  to  content  herself 
with  dominion  over  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  The 
.French  and  Belgian  colonies 
in  Africa  were  to  be  seized, 
for  the  simple  reason  that 
Germany  had  few  colonies, 
and  wanted  more.  Even 
free  America  was  sooner  or 
later  to  be  brought  under 
the  dominion  of  the  new 
world  empire.  Using  the  German  colony  in  southern  Brazil  as 
a  base  of  military  operations,  all  the  valuable  portion  of  South 
America  was  to  be  brought  under  German  rule.  A  power  which 
treated  its  solemn  promise  to  observe  the  neutrality  of  Belgium 
as  a  mere  "  scrap  of  paper  "  could  hardly  be  expected  to  regard 
our  Monroe  Doctrine  seriously.  If  the  United  States  dared  to 
resist,  we  had  the  Kaiser's  own  word  for  it  that  he  would  toler- 
ate no  nonsense  from  us.  German  armies  would  occupy  our 
great  coast  cities,  and  the  payment  of  a  huge  war  indemnity 
would  teach  us  proper  respect  for  German  Kultur. 


Courtesy  of  the  Belgian  Legation. 

King  Albert 

Not  a  mere  figurehead  ruler,  but  a  real 
leader  of  his  people. 


DEMOCRACY  ON  TRIAL  573 

This  ambitious  program  was  not  the  dream  of  a  few  German 
visionaries  or  jingoes.  It  was  an  actual  plan,  carefully  worked 
out  in  detail  by  the  war-mad  clique  which  ruled  Germany. 
The  German  people,  it  is  true,  were  not  consulted  in  the  matter  ; 
there  was  no  need  to  consult  them,  for  Germany  was  ruled, 
not  by  her  people,  but  by  the  Kaiser  supported  by  the  military 
leaders  and  the  Prussian  aristocracy.  So  audacious  and  so 
insolent  is  this  German  plan  of  world  power  that  it  startles 
our  belief ;  yet  in  the  fateful  year  of  1914  it  came  near  to  realiza- 
tion. "  Now  strikes  the  hour  for  Germany's  rising  power," 
wrote  one  of  her  editors  as  the  German  armies  were  launched 
across  neutral  Belgium  to  strike  France  at  a  point  where  she 
would  not  expect  attack.  Only  the  heroic  resistance  of  the 
little  Belgian  army,  the  defeat  of  the  German  hordes  by  France 
in  the  battle  of  the  Marne,  and  England's  unbroken  power  on 
the  sea,  prevented  Germany's  dream  of  world  empire  from 
becoming  an  accomplished  fact. 

Germany's  Allies  and  Her  Military  Preparations.  Within 
two  years  after  hostilities  began,  thirty-eight  million  men  were 
bearing  arms  in  the  most  terrible  war  of  the  world's  history. 
On  the  side  of  Germany  were  three  of  the  central  European 
countries,  Austria-Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Turkey.  Allied 
with  France,  England,  and  Russia  in  the  struggle  against  world 
despotism  were  Italy,  Belgium,  Japan,  Portugal,  Servia  and 
Rumania. 

From  the  outset,  Germany  had  several  advantages  over 
her  opponents.  For  nearly  fifty  years  she  had  been  making  ready 
for  war,  while  England,  Russia,  and  even  France,  were  quite 
unprepared.  Germany's  immense  armies  were  fully  trained 
and  equipped  ;  she  had  a  vast  supply  of  ammunition,  machine 
guns,  and  heavy  cannon,  far  exceeding  that  which  all  the  rest 
of  the  world  could  assemble;  she  was  ready  with  her  poison 
gas  shells,  the  use  of  which  was  forbidden  by  the  rules  of 
civilized  warfare;  she  had  her  immense  Zeppelins  to  hurl 
bombs  upon  unfortified  cities,  and  her  submarines  for  the 
murder  of  men,  women,  and  children  on  the  high  seas.  Along 
the  Belgian  frontier,  Germany  had  built  a  complete  system  of 


574        THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

railways  for  the  quick  invasion  of  Belgium  and  France ;  on 
her  eastern  frontier,  a  similar  system  was  ready  to  carry  her 
troops  into  Russia.  In  the  year  1913,  Germany  increased  the 
peace  strength  of  her  army  to  900,000  men,  and  made  ready 
to  strike.  The  year  1914  found  Germany  as  fully  prepared 
for  hostilities  as  the  well-armed  highwayman  who  approaches 
his  victim  in  the  dark.  Like  the  highwayman,  she  chose  the 
favorable  moment  for  the  assault ;  again  like  him,  she  struck 
from  behind  by  invading  little  Belgium,  a  country  which  she 
had  agreed  by  treaty  to  respect  as  neutral.  In  this  way  Ger- 
many was  able  to  intrench  her  armies  on  French  soil  before 
the  Allies  could  make  an  effectual  resistance. 

The  United  States  Faces  the  Problems  of  Neutrality.  Ger- 
many began  her  invasion  of  Belgium  and  France  in  August, 
1914,  and  for  two  years  and  eight  months  the  United  States 
maintained  an  attitude  of  strict  neutrality  between  the  warring 
powers.  With  all  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  at  war,  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  position  was  a  difficult  one.  The  chief  trouble, 
as  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  was  with  regard  to  our  trade 
on  the  ocean.  The  United  States  tried  to  maintain  the  right 
of  our  citizens  to  trade  with  the  countries  at  war,  subject  to 
the  rules  of  international  law.  Under  these  rules,  our  ships 
had  a  right  to  the  freedom  of  the  seas  provided  they  did  not 
carry  contraband  of  war,  or  attempt  to  break  an  established 
blockade.  Even  if  they  did  either  of  these  things,  the  penalty 
was  seizure  of  the  ship  only,  while  the  crews  must  be  given  an 
opportunity  to  save  their  lives.  But  from  the  outset,  Germany 
disregarded  international  law  on  the  ocean  just  as  she  had  done 
on  land  by  invading  neutral  Belgium.  Her  submarines  sank 
several  of  our  merchant  ships  without  any  regard  for  the  safety 
of  their  crews. 

Germany  Murders  Our  Citizens  on  the  High  Seas.  Finally, 
on  May  7,  1915,  a  German  submarine  torpedoed  the  unarmed 
British  liner  Lusitania  without  warning.  Twelve  hundred 
men,  women,  and  children  were  drowned,  including  124  Ameri- 
cans. Our  citizens  were  entirety  within  their  rights  in  taking 
passage  on  the  Lusitania,  and  the  sinking  of  the  steamer  with* 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL 


575 


out  giving  its  passengers  and  crew  an  opportunity  to  save  their 
lives  was  not  war,  but  murder.  Yet  the  German  government 
struck  medals  to  commemorate  this  event,  and  gave  only  evasive 
answers  to  our  protests.  Even  after  the  Lusitania  outrage, 
President  Wilson  made  every  effort  to  avoid  war,  but  Ger- 
many merely  concluded  that  our  people  were  too  cowardly  to 
fight,  and  continued  her  policy  of  terrorizing  on  the  high  seas. 


Undent' ood  and  Underwood. 


The  Allies  Pay  Tribute  to  Washington  at  Mount  Vernon 

The  Right  Honorable  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  British  Foreign  Minister,  addressing 
the  representatives  of  our  Allies  who  brought  flowers  to  place  on  Washington's 
tomb. 

About  one  year  later,  the  sinking  of  the  British  steamer  Sussex 
without  warning  brought  on  a  new  crisis  (March  24,  1916). 
The  United  States  now  made  an  imperative  demand  that  Ger- 
many should  conduct  her  submarine  campaign  in  accordance 
with  international  law  by  warning  ships  before  sinking  them, 
and  by  placing  their  passengers  and  crews  in  safety.  Germany 
made  a  conditional  agreement  to  do  this ;  later  events  proved 
that  she  had  no  intention  of  keeping  her  promise,  but  only 
wanted  time  to  build  more  submarines. 


-; 


576       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

German  Intrigues  against  the  United  States.  Meantime, 
the  German  government  carried  on  numberless  intrigues  in  the 
United  States,  intrigues  directed  by  her  official  representatives 
at  Washington.  She  filled  our  country  with  spies ;  her  agents 
placed  bombs  in  merchant  vessels  about  to  sail  from  our  ports ; 
they  stirred  up  strikes  among  our  laborers,  set  fire  to  our 
munition  factories,  and  bribed  American  writers  and  lecturers 
to  oppose  war  with  Germany  even  at  the  cost  of  our  national 
self-respect.  In  the  hope  of  bringing  about  a  war  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States,  Germany  spent  large  sums  on  the 
Mexican  revolutionists.  Later,  her  foreign  minister  Zimmer- 
mann  sent  a  dispatch  to  Mexico  urging  that  country  to  ally 
herself  with  Germany  against  the  United  States,  and  try  to 
draw  in  Japan  on  her  side ;  by  way  of  reward,  Mexico  was  to 
receive  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico !  But  the  crowning 
insolence  of  German  diplomacy  was  the  dispatch  which  Am- 
bassador Bernstorff  cabled  from  Washington  to  his  government 
at  Berlin.  He  asked  to  be  given  authority  to  expend  $50,000 
"  in  order,  as  on  former  occasions,  to  influence  Congress  through 
the  organization  you  know  of." 

Our  Country  decides  to  Fight  for  Democracy.  On  the  last 
day  of  January,  1917,  the  German  ambassador  handed  to  our 
Secretary  of  State  Lansing  a  note  announcing  the  intention  of 
Germany  to  adopt  a  ruthless  submarine  policy  on  a  vast  scale. 
After  February  1,  German  submarines  would  endeavor  to  sink, 
without  warning,  every  vessel  that  sought  to  approach  either 
the  ports  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  the  western  coast  of 
Europe,  or  any  of  the  ports  controlled  by  the  enemies  of  Ger- 
many within  the  Mediterranean.  This  was  a  direct  challenge 
to  the  United  States ;  and  President  Wilson  made  the  only 
possible  answer  by  handing  the  German  ambassador  his  pass- 
ports, thereby  severing  relations  with  a  government  which  had 
repeatedly  shown  its  bad  faith. 

Following  her  new  decree  of  ruthlessness,  Germany  sank 
eight  more  American  ships.  In  all,  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  American  citizens,  many  of  them  women  and  children, 
had  now  lost  their  lives  by  the  action  of  German  submarines. 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL 


577 


Germany's  warfare  against  commerce  had  become,  as  Presi- 
dent Wilson  said,  a  warfare  against  mankind ;  and  on  April  2, 
1917,  he  appeared  before  Congress  to  deliver  his  famous  war 
message.  The  President  recounted  the  outrages  which  Ger- 
many had  committed  against  the  lives  and  property  of  our 
citizens,  and  referred  to  her 
false  promises  made  only 
to  be  broken.  "  We  shall 
not  choose  the  path  of  sub- 
mission," he  declared,  "  and 
suffer  the  most  sacred  rights 
of  our  nation  and  our  people 
to  be  ignored  or  violated." 
President  Wilson  solemnly 
advised  Congress  to  accept 
the  state  of  war  which  Ger- 
many had  forced  upon  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 
"  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  lead 
this  great,  peaceful  people 
into  war,  into  the  most 
terrible  and  disastrous  of  all 
wars,  civilization  itself  seem- 
ing to  be  in  the  balance. 
But  the  right  is  more 
precious  than  peace,  and  we 
shall  fight  for  the  things 
which  we  have  always  car- 
ried nearest  our  hearts  — 
for  democracy,  for  the  right 
of  those  who  submit  to  au- 
thority to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  governments,  for  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  small  nations,  for  a  universal  dominion  of  right 
by  such  a  concert  of  free  people  as  shall  bring  peace  and  safety 
to  all  nations  and  make  the  world  itself  at  last  free." 

Why  War  was  our  only  Recourse.     A  few  days  after  the 
President's  message,  Congress  adopted  a  resolution  that  a  state 


d  Underwood. 


Woodrow  Wilson 


In  his  war  message  to  Congress,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  said  "We  are  glad,  now  that 
we  see  the  facts  with  no  veil  of  false  pre- 
tense about  them,  to  fight  thus  for  the 
peace  of  the  world  and  for  the  liberation 
of  its  peoples,  the  German  people  included  ; 
for  the  rights  of  nations  great  and  small 
and  the  privilege  of  men  everywhere  to 
choose  their  way  of  life  and  of  obedience. 
The  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democ- 
racy. Its  peace  must  be  planted  upon  the 
tested  foundations  of  political  liberty." 


578       THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD  POWER 


2       ii 


4 


of  war  existed  between  the  United  States  and  Germany  (April  6, 
1917).     Three  reasons  made  this  decision  imperative: 

(1)  Because  of  the  renewal  by  Germany  of  her  submarine 
warfare  in  a  more  violent  form  than  ever  before,  resulting  in 
the  loss  of  American  lives  and  property  on  the  high  seas.  As 
in  the  War  of  1812,  the  United  States  was  called  upon  to  defend 
the  principle  that  the  deck  of  an  American  ship  is  the  same  as 
American  soil,  and  that  the  flag  which  floats 
over  the  ship  protects  the  lives  of  the  men  be- 
neath it. 

(2)  Because  of  the  menace  to  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  and  to  our  own  independence,  result- 
ing from  the  ambitions  of  a  war-mad  Germany. 
If  we  had  stayed  out  of  the  war,  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  would  have  become  an  empty  threat 
before  a  victorious  Germany. 

(3)  Because  the  European  war  had  become 

a  conflict  between  democratic  nations  on  the 

one  hand,  and  autocratic  nations  on  the  other. 

Germany   had   trampled   under  foot  the  law 

of  nations ;    an   international   desperado,    she 

threatened  the  freedom  of  the  world,  opposing 
The  Congressional  T  i.         j.      •  ,  ,         ir  •         ,* 

Medal  of  Honor    ner  Pollcy  of  might  and  force  against  the  prin- 

Granted  only  in  ciples  of  right  and  humanity.     "  The  world," 

cases  of  the  most  as  President  Wilson  said,  "  must  be  made  safe 

conspicuous     brav-   r>       -r-\  ■>■>       t  *x±i     t>   i    •  u     l  •    i_a 

ery  tor  Democracy.       Little  Belgium  had  a  right 

to  its  own  national  life,  the  French  people  had 
a  right  to  live  in  peace,  American  citizens  had  a  right  to  travel 
on  the  ocean  highways  of  the  world,  free  from  the  haunting 
terror  of  German  ruthlessness. 

Conscripting  a  National  Army.  As  in  the  case  of  all  our 
previous  wars,  the  United  States  was  almost  wholly  unpre- 
pared in  April,  1917.  This  was  especially  true  of  our  army, 
which  was  so  small  and  so  poorly  equipped  that  Germany 
looked  upon  it  with  contempt.  Our  entire  army,  including 
the  National  Guard,  numbered  only  202,000  men  ;  and  we  had 
no  trained  reserves,  since  our  people  had  never  favored  uni- 


DEMOCRACY  ON  TRIAL  579 

versal  military  service.  We  had  scarcely  enough  uniforms 
even  for  this  small  force,  while  there  was  a  sad  lack  of  rifles, 
machine  guns,  artillery,  airships,  and  all  the  weapons  of  modern 
warfare.  Congress  and  the  President  now  set  earnestly  at 
work  to  organize  the  nation  for  war,  and  within  a  year  great 
results  were  achieved.  In  May,  1917,  Congress  passed  a  law 
which  created  a  new  national  army,  to  be  chosen  by  draft  out 
of  all  the  able-bodied  men  in  the  United  States  between  the 
ages  of  twenty-one  and  thirty  years,  inclusive.  In  the  follow- 
ing June,  9,650,000  young  men  were  registered  for  war  service 
before  some  4000  local  draft  boards.  It  was  decided  that  the 
first  installment  to  be  called  out  in  1917  should  number  687,000 
men,  and  that  about  the  same  number  should  be  called  in  1918. 

Nearly  all  of  these  men  were  without  any  military  training 
whatever;  so  it  was  necessary  to  establish  a  number  of  im- 
mense camps  where  they  could  be  assembled  and  prepared 
for  the  stern  work  ahead  of  them.  Within  a  few  months, 
sixteen  cantonments,  or  great  army  camps,  were  constructed 
at  different  points  throughout  the  United  States.  Each  canton- 
ment was  really  a  complete  city  by  itself,  with  accommodations 
for  about  47,000  men.  The  entire  National  Guard  was  also 
called  out,  recruited  to  its  war  strength  of  450,000  men,  and 
sent  into  great  tented  camps.  The  regular  army  was  increased 
by  voluntary  enlistment ;  and  at  the  end  of  our  first  year  of 
war,  1,500,000  soldiers  were  bearing  arms  for  the  United  States. 

Our  Army  of  Five  Million  Men.  By  the  summer  of  1918, 
it  was  evident  that  the  United  States  must  have  still  larger 
armies.  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy  had  suffered  enormous 
losses  in  their  long  heroic  struggle  to  save  the  world's  freedom ; 
while  Russia  had  abandoned  the  Allies,  thereby  releasing  many 
German  divisions  for  service  on  the  western  front.  So  in 
August,  1918,  Congress  passed  another  draft  law  which  required 
all  men  from  eighteen  to  forty-five  years,  inclusive,  to  register 
for  service.  Our  government  now  planned  to  have  an  army 
of  four  million  men  in  France  before  the  summer  of  1919,  be- 
sides another  million  in  our  training  camps  in  this  country. 
The  military  leaders  of  Germany  had  told  their  people  that 


580      THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

German  submarines  would  make  it  impossible  for  us  to  send 
troops  across  the  Atlantic.  This  was  only  another  falsehood ; 
for  within  fifteen  months  after  our  declaration  of  war,  we  were 
sending  troops  to  France  at  the  rate  of  about  250,000  each 
month.  When  the  armistice  was  signed,  our  army  included 
3,734,420  men  in  service.  Of  this  number,  2,002,175  were 
already  overseas,  while  94,000  more  were  on  transports,  en 
route  to  Europe. 

Expansion  of  the  Navy.  To  protect  these  troops  while 
crossing  the  Atlantic,  and  to  aid  in  hunting  down  enemy  sub- 
marines, our  navy  was  greatly  strengthened.  The  number 
of  men  was  increased  from  82,000  to  nearly  500,000 ;  and  con- 
tracts were  let  for  the  construction  of  vessels  of  every  type, 
from  super-dreadnaughts  to  submarine  chasers.  Many  pri- 
vately owned  vessels,  yachts,  and  fast  motor  boats  were  taken 
over,  and  transformed  into  patrol  boats,  submarine  chasers, 
and  mine  sweepers.  Our  government  also  seized  the  German 
merchant  ships  that  had  taken  refuge  in  our  ports  to  avoid 
capture  by  the  British  navy.  The  German  engineers  tried 
to  damage  these  vessels  so  that  they  could  not  be  used ;  and 
the  former  commander  of  the  Vaterland  boasted  that  he  would 
take  off  his  hat  to  any  American  who  could  put  his  ship  in 
shape  in  time  to  be  of  service  during  the  war.  Within  six 
months  from  the  day  he  made  his  boast,  the  engineers  and 
artificers  of  the  American  navy  had  the  former  liner  ready  for 
service;  renamed  the  Leviathan,  she  carried  12,000  American 
soldiers  to  France  on  each  voyage.  In  all,  some  1300  ships 
were  added  to  our  navy  during  the  war.  About  300  of  these, 
with  75,000  men,  were  in  European  waters  when  hostilities 
ceased. 

Twenty-eight  days  after  we  declared  war,  our  first  squadron 
of  destroyers  and  battleships  reached  England,  ready  to  co- 
operate with  the  British  and  French  fleets.  "  When  will  you 
be  ready  for  business?  "  asked  the  British  commander,  on  the 
morning  of  May  4.  "  We  can  start  at  once,"  replied  Admiral 
William  S.  Sims.  "  We  made  preparations  on  the  way  over. 
That  is  why  we  are  ready."    The  American  vessels  immediately 


DEMOCRACY   ON  TRIAL 


581 


began  operations  in  the  submarine  zone ;  and  the  losses  from 
these  pirates  of  the  sea  steadily  diminished  from  that  time. 
In  convoying  our  troops,  American  and  British  warships  made 
a  wonderful  record.  Two  million  soldiers  were  landed  in  France 
with  the  loss  of  only  seven  hundred  men.  Of  this  achievement, 
Archibald  Hurd,  the  British  naval  expert,  said :  "  When  the 
war  is  over,  the  nation  will 
form  some  conception  of  the 
debt  which  we  owe  the 
American  Navy  for  the 
manner  in  which  it  has 
cooperated,  not  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  convoy 
system,  but  in  fighting  the 
submarines.  Some  of  the 
finest  battleships  of  the 
United  States  Navy  are  now 
associated  with  the  British 
Grand  Fleet.  They  are  not 
only  splendid  fighting  ships, 
but  they  are  well  officered 
and  manned." 

American  Industry  Or- 
ganized for  War.  American 
industry,  no  less  than  the 
army  and  navy,  had  to  be 
reorganized  to  meet  the  im- 
mense demands  made  upon 
it  for  guns,  ammunition,  air- 
planes, clothing,  shoes,  and 

above  all  else,  for  ships  and  food  supplies.  Modern  warfare  is 
more  a  problem  of  industry  than  of  military  tactics,  and  the 
great  industrial  strength  of  the  United  States  was  soon  welded 
into  a  vast  war  machine.  The  bravest  troops  in  the  world 
would  be  helpless  without  an  adequate  supply  of  rifles  and 
machine  guns,  backed  up  by  heavy  artillery,  tanks,  and  airships. 
Except  for  a  number  of  Springfield  rifles,  we  had  practically 


i  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

William  S.  Sims 

Three  things  will  always  be  remembered 
of  Admiral  Sims.  He  taught  American 
gunners  to  shoot  with  deadly  accuracy; 
he  compelled  American  ship  constructors 
to  build  warships  of  better  design ;  and 
in  the  World  War,  he  cooperated  most 
effectively  with  the  British  navy  in  crush- 
ing the  submarines. 


582      THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


none  of  these  weapons.  Throughout  most  of  the  war,  therefore, 
we  had  to  rely  upon  France,  especially  for  heavy  artillery  and 
for  aeroplanes.  But  American  manufacturers  made  tremendous 
efforts  to  provide  for  our  military  needs;  and  if  the  war  had 
lasted  a  few  months  longer,  our  factories  would  have  been  sup- 
plying all  of  our  own  needs,  and  part  of  the  equipment  for  the 
Allies  as  well. 

Production  of  Rifles,  Artillery,  and  Gas.     When  the  war 
began,  we  had  on  hand  about  600,000  Springfield  rifles.     The 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

A  Camouflaged  Baby  Tank  in  the  Victory  Loan  Drive 

This  two-man  tank  is  drawing  a  captured  German  field  piece  under  the 
Memorial  Arch  at  Madison  Square,  New  York,  erected  in  honor  of  the  return  of 
the  27th  Division. 

daily  production  of  these  was  greatly  increased,  and  the  modified 
Enfield  rifle  was  turned  out  in  still  larger  numbers.  When 
peace  came  we  had  3,000,000  rifles  on  hand,  and  new  ones  were 
coming  through  at  the  rate  of  50,000  a  week.  We  had  made 
50,000  of  the  heavy  Browning  machine  guns,  and  more  than 
that  number  of  light  Browning  automatic  rifles. 

Nearly  all  of  our  heavy  artillery  was  purchased  in  France; 
but  American  plants  were  turning  out  75's  and  howitzers  at 
a  quantity  rate  when  the  armistice  was  signed.  A  few  months 
more,  and  they  would  have  been  able  to  supply  the  needs  of 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL  583 

the  largest  army  we  could  have  put  in  the  field ;  and  the  same 
was  true  of  our  production  of  high  explosive  shells  and  smokeless 
powder.  We  had  devised  a  gas  mask  better  than  any  used  dur- 
ing the  war ;  and  our  Division  of  Chemical  Warfare  was  making 
all  the  varieties  of  gas  known  to  the  Germans,  besides  a  new  one 
by  way  of  surprise,  more  deadly  than  the  terrible  mustard  gas. 
We  had  built  3500  caterpillar  tractors,  each  capable  of  carrying 
an  8-inch  howitzer  wherever  it  was  needed,  climbing  out  of  shell 


©  Underwood  atid  Underwood. 

A  Bombing  Squadron  at  12,000  feet  altitude 

These  Ourtiss  JN-4's,  the  best  training  plane  developed  in  this  country 
during  the  war,  are  executing  the  famous  "V"  battle  formation.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  World  War,  aerial  battles  were  between  two  opposing  planes, 
"Knights  of  the  Air."  Then  the  Germans  developed  the  "Flying  Circus,"  a 
group  formation  which  was  eventually  improved  upon  by  the  Allies. 

holes  and  across  embankments,  as  occasion  required.  When  the 
armistice  was  signed,  our  government  was  building  6000  of  the 
French  whippet  tanks ;  and  the  summer  of  1919  would  have 
found  our  armies  supplied  with  10,000  Ford  baby  tanks, 
each  equipped  with  two  automobile  engines  and  mounting  a 
heavy  Browning  machine  gun. 

Aircraft  Production.  Supremacy  in  the  air  had  already 
proven  of  vital  importance  to  the  armies  fighting  in  France ; 
so  Congress  promptly  appropriated  $640,000,000  for  the  build- 
ing of  aeroplanes  under  the  direction  of  the  Aircraft  Produc- 
tion Board.  New  methods  of  lumbering  had  to  be  devised  in 
order  to  obtain  the  millions  of  feet  of  spruce  needed  for  the 
framework;  this  lumber  was  seasoned  by  a  new  process  to 
hasten  production,  and  a  special  fabric  of  long-fiber  cotton 


584       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

was  invented  for  wing-covering,  to  replace  the  unobtainable 
Irish  linen. 

So  the  story  of  our  aircraft  production  is  the  story  of  the 
development  of  new  industrial  processes  and  methods,  and  of 
the  training  of  thousands  of  men  and  women  in  new  arts  and 
crafts.  Scores  of  factories  were  turned  from  normal  pro- 
duction to  specialized  aircraft  work.  For  example,  typewriter 
and  cash  register  factories  were  called  upon  to  manufacture  the 
nuts,  bolts,  and  small  metal  parts  needed ;  furniture  factories 
had  to  learn  the  difficult  art  of  manufacturing  wings  of  spruce, 
covered  with  fabric ;  while  automobile  factories  turned  out 
the  engines.  These  were  the  famous  Liberty  Motors,  a  high- 
power  engine  of  which  31,000  had  been  produced  when  peace 
came.  Many  of  these  were  purchased  by  the  Allies,  who 
redesigned  their  aeroplanes  to  take  this  lighter  but  more  powerful 
engine.  When  the  armistice  was  signed,  our  factories  were 
at  work  upon  a  program  that  called  for  51,000  Liberty  Twelves 
and  8000  Liberty  Eights ;  these  were  being  turned  out  at  the 
rate  of  5000  a  month,  and  this  output  would  soon  have  been 
doubled.  If  the  war  had  lasted  until  June,  1919,  our  armies 
on  the  western  front  would  have  been  equipped  with  at  least 
five  times  as  many  aeroplanes  as  the  Germans  had  ever  been  able 
to  put  into  service  at  one  time. 

Shipbuilding  becomes  a  Supreme  Need.  To  transport  our 
millions  of  soldiers  to  France,  and  to  keep  them  supplied  with  food 
and  munitions,  called  for  a  great  fleet  of  merchant  ships.  When 
we  entered  the  war,  German  submarines  were  destroying  our 
vessels  and  those  of  the  Allies  at  the  rate  of  500,000  tons  a  month. 
Unless  our  shipyards  could  build  many  new  ships  and  build 
them  quickly,  we  could  not  hope  to  win  the  war.  So  Congress 
authorized  the  expenditure  of  two  billion  dollars  for  the  con- 
struction of  an  immense  merchant  fleet.  One  of  our  great 
captains  of  industry,  Charles  M.  Schwab,  was  finally  placed 
in  charge  of  the  work  of  construction.  His  task  was  to  create 
out  of  almost  nothing  an  immense  merchant  marine,  to  multiply 
our  normal  production  of  ships  by  twenty.  This  meant  that 
our  steel  mills  had  to  roll  plates  on  a  scale  hitherto  unknown ; 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL  585 

our  makers  of  boilers  and  turbine  engines  had  to  multiply  their 
output  by  ten;  existing  shipyards  must  triple  and  quadruple 
their  facilities  almost  overnight ;  and  a  new  industrial  army 
of  half  a  million  men  had  to  be  created  and  taught  the  ship- 
building trades. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  there  were  only 
sixty-one  shipyards  in  the  entire  country.  Eighteen  months 
later  there  were  198  yards,  68  of  which  were  building  steel  ships. 
When  peace  came,  these  yards  had  added  to  our  merchant 
marine  496  new  ships,  aggregating  nearly  3,000,000  tons; 
while  285  other  ships  had  been  launched,  and  keels  laid  for  743 
more.  With  the  foreign-owned  ships  that  had  been  seized 
as  a  war  measure,  our  government  was  in  control  of  1656 
vessels,  and  contracts  had  been  let  for  1475  more.  The  com- 
pletion of  this  program  will  give  to  the  United  States  the  greatest 
merchant  fleet  ever  assembled  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  new  ships  placed  in  commission  required  the  services 
of  thousands  of  seamen.  The  war  found  us  as  destitute  of 
seamen  as  of  shipbuilders,  so  it  became  necessary  to  establish 
a  score  of  schools  for  training  in  seamanship.  Several  large 
vessels  from  the  coast  service  were  turned  into  huge  training 
schools,  where  boys  from  the  farms  and  from  the  great  industrial 
cities  learned  the  arts  of  splicing  ropes  and  making  knots,  the 
use  of  the  compass,  and  the  indispensable  duties  of  the  lookout 
and  the  watch.  No  less  than  our  soldiers  in  France  and  our 
mechanics  in  the  shipyards,  these  men  helped  to  win  the  World 
War  for  democracy. 

Cooperation  Helps  to  Win  the  War.  The  success  of  our  ship- 
building program  was  due  largely  to  the  hearty  cooperation  of 
the  workmen  in  the  various  plants.  Charles  M.  Schwab,  who 
was  popular  with  the  steel  workers  everywhere,  visited  each 
shipyard  and  urged  a  speeding  up  of  production.  As  a  result, 
interesting  competitions  in  riveting  took  place  ;  the  best  record 
was  made  by  John  Omir,  who  drove  12,209  rivets  in  nine  hours. 
The  same  enthusiastic  support  was  given  in  every  industry  upon 
which  the  government  made  demands.  American  labor  was 
thoroughly  loyal;    the  workingmen  realized  that  labor  had  a 


586       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD  POWER 


vital  stake  in  this  war  against  autocracy.  The  American  Fed- 
eration of  Labor  took  a  patriotic  stand  upon  the  question  of 
the  hour,  and  its  president,  Samuel  Gompers,  was  the  trusted 
adviser  of  President  Wilson  on  many  occasions. 

Thousands  of  American  manufacturers,   business,  and  pro- 
fessional men,  many  of  whom  were  executives  of  high  talent, 

offered  their  services  to 
the  government  without 
thought  of  recompense. 
Just  as  Charles  M.  Schwab 
came  forward  to  speed  up 
the  shipbuilding  program, 
so  Edward  R.  Stettinius 
took  charge  of  the  manu- 
facture of  munitions,  John 
W.  Ryan  of  aircraft  produc- 
tion, Herbert  C.  Hoover  of 
food  production,  and  Vance 
McCormick  of  the  difficult 
problems  of  the  War  Trade 
Board. 

Food,  Fuel,  and  Trans- 
portation. Besides  provid- 
ing food  for  our  people  at 
home  and  for  our  armies 
abroad,  the  United  States 
had  to  send  large  supplies  to 
the  Allies.  So  the  American 
farmers  were  called  upon  to 
do  their  part  by  raising  larger  crops  than  ever  before ;  and  the 
people  all  over  the  country  were  urged  to  conserve  food,  to  eat 
less  meat,  sugar,  and  wheat,  in  order  that  more  of  these  com- 
modities might  be  sent  to  Europe.  Herbert  C.  Hoover,  who  had 
been  in  charge  of  American  relief  work  in  Belgium,  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  National  Food  Administration,  with  powers  that 
practically  made  him  a  food  dictator.  Acting  under  his  direction, 
State  Food  Administrators  were  established  in  each  state,  and 


©  Harris  and  Ewing. 

Charles  M.  Schwab 
Our  master  shipbuilder.  On  taking 
charge,  Mr.  Schwab  said  :  "  I  do  not  want 
to  have  any  man  in  the  shipyards  working 
for  me.  I  want  them  all  working  with 
me.  Nothing  is  going  to  be  worth  while 
unless  we  win  this  war,  and  every  one  must 
do  the  task  to  which  he  is  called." 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL 


587 


local  administrators  in  each  county.  As  a  result  of  the  efforts 
and  self-denial  of  our  people,  the  United  States  was  able  to  send 
abroad  millions  of  tons  of  foodstuffs  ;  and  this  unceasing  stream 
of  supplies  from  America  was  a  potent  factor  in  the  final  victory. 
The  country's  supply  of  coal  was  taken  in  charge  by  the 
United  States  Fuel  Commission,  of  which  Harry  A.  Garfield 
was  chairman.  This  body 
set  prices  for  the  different 
kinds  of  coal  throughout 
the  United  States,  and  gave 
orders  to  the  railroads  con- 
cerning the  transportation 
of  fuel.  This  was  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  na- 
tion's most  important  needs 
should  be  first  supplied ; 
above  all,  coal  must  reach 
the  seaboard  for  ships  about 
to  sail  abroad,  and  fuel 
must  be  supplied  to  the 
factories  producing  war  ma- 
terials. The  task  of  trans- 
portation soon  proved  too 
much  for  the  railroads  of  the 
country,  operating  under 
separate  management.  In 
spite  of  their  efforts,  an  im- 
mense amount  of  freight 
could  not  be  moved,  and 
the  whole  eastern  section  of  the  country  faced  a  fuel  famine  in 
the  fall  of  1917.  In  order  to  solve  this  problem  of  distribution, 
the  national  government  finally  took  charge  of  all  the  railway 
lines  of  the  country.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  William  G. 
McAdoo,  was  appointed  Director-General  of  Railroads.  A  few 
months  later,  the  government  also  took  over  the  entire  tele- 
graph, telephone,  and  radio  service  of  the  United  Spates,  placing 
it  in  charge  of  the  Postmaster-General. 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Herbert  C.  Hoover 

In  one  sense  it  is  true  that  food  won 
the  war  ;  for  without  the  American  farmer, 
the  Allies  must  have  surrendered.  "In 
giving  credit  for  results,"  wrote  Mr. 
Hoover  concerning  the  Food  Administra- 
tion, "no  one  will  deny  the  dominant  part 
of  the  American  woman." 


588       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

Financing  the  War.  Immense  sums  of  money,  so  large  as  to 
be  almost  beyond  conception,  were  necessary  for  our  vast  mili- 
tary preparations.  In  the  first  year  of  the  war,  our  total  dis- 
bursements reached  the  startling  figure  of  nineteen  billions,  or 
nearly  five  times  the  total  cost  of  the  Civil  War.  Of  this  im- 
mense sum,  about  one  third  was  loaned  to  our  Allies,  the  re- 
mainder being  actual  expenditures.  To  raise  this  revenue,  the 
government  resorted  to  taxation  on  a  large  scale,  besides  bor- 
rowing immense  sums  through  the  sale  of  bonds  and  other 
securities.  The  tax  law  passed  on  October  3,  1917,  was  planned 
to  produce  two  and  one  half  billions  of  revenue  during  the 
ensuing  year,  while  the  law  of  1918  was  to  raise  six  billion 
dollars.  The  most  important  items  in  point  of  size  were  the 
tax  on  excess  business  profits,  the  tax  on  incomes,  and  the  taxes 
on  liquor  and  tobacco.  There  were  also  taxes  on  theater 
tickets  and  club  dues,  on  promissory  notes,  deeds,  and  mortgages, 
on  freight  and  express  shipments,  on  telegrams,  motion  pictures, 
automobiles  and  tires,  together  with  an  increase  in  postage 
rates. 

Besides  the  vast  revenuse  raised  by  taxation,  we  had  to 
borrow  still  larger  sums ;  for  before  the  close  of  the  year  1917, 
the  war  was  costing  our  government  fifty  million  dollars  each 
day.  This  was  done  by  selling  bonds,  war-savings  stamps  and 
certificates,  to  be  paid  for  out  of  future  taxes.  Our  govern- 
ment wisely  decided  to  sell  its  bonds  directly  to  the  people, 
through  popular  subscription;  and  in  order  that  they  might 
be  within  reach  of  all,  bonds  were  offered  in  denominations  as 
small  as  $50.  Three  great  Liberty  Loans,  aggregating  ten 
billion  dollars,  were  made  during  the  first  year  of  the  war ;  a 
fourth  loan  of  over  six  billions  was  made  in  1918 ;  and  a  fifth 
Victory  Loan  of  nearly  five  billions  in  1919.  On  each  occasion 
the  people  subscribed  for  more  bonds  than  were  offered  for  sale. 

As  President  Wilson  pointed  out,  even  the  unheard-of  money 
expenditures  of  the  war  would  be  worth  while  if  they  resulted 
in  habits  of  thrift  and  self-denial  among  our  people.  So  a 
war-savings  plan  was  arranged  by  which  even  the  smallest 
investors  could  aid  the  government  with  their  savings.     Thrift 


DEMOCRACY   ON  TRIAL  589 

stamps  costing  twenty-five  cents  each  were  sold,  twenty  of 
which,  with  a  few  cents  additional,  could  be  exchanged  for  a  war- 
savings  certificate.  From  this  source  the  government  was  able 
to  raise  nearly  one  billion  dollars  during  the  first  year  of  the  war. 

Soldiers*  Insurance  instead  of  Pensions.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War,  our  government  promised  pensions  to  disabled 
soldiers,  and  to  the  families  of  men  who  were  killed  in  fighting 
for  the  Union.  A  better  plan  was  worked  out  when  the  United 
States  entered  the  World  War,  by  which  the  government  pro- 
vided insurance  instead  of  pensions  for  men  in  the  service.  A 
Bureau  of  War  Risk  Insurance  in  the  Treasury  Department 
insured  the  men  at  rates  somewhat  lower  than  what  they  would 
pay  in  time  of  peace.  The  government  also  made  a  family 
allowance  for  each  man  in  the  service  who  had  a  dependent 
wife  or  children. 

Disloyal  Opposition  to  the  War.  Just  as  during  the  Civil 
War  the  Copperheads  had  opposed  the  Union  cause,  urging  a 
complete  surrender  to  secession,  so  in  the  crisis  of  1917  many 
so-called  pacifists  argued  that  the  United  States  must  not 
use  military  force  to  defend  her  rights  as  a  nation.  These  peace- 
at-any-price  men,  many  of  whom  were  in  German  pay,  said  that 
no  matter  what  outrages  Germany  committed  against  us  or 
against  common  humanity,  we  must  tamely  submit.  Even 
when  our  government  declared  war,  many  of  them  continued 
their  opposition.  They  held  public  meetings  to  indorse  the 
position  of  a  United  States  Senator  who  upheld  Germany's 
cause  in  Congress  ;  they  sent  out  pamphlets  urging  resistance 
to  the  conscription  law;  they  tried  to  stir  up  strikes  among 
our  workmen,  and  aided  the  criminal  violence  of  the  organiza- 
tion calling  itself  the  "  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World."  A 
number  of  these  traitors  were  finally  brought  to  trial,  and  im- 
prisoned for  the  period  of  the  war. 

Telling  the  People  about  the  War.  To  give  the  people  re- 
liable information  about  the  war,  an  official  Committee  of 
Public  Information  was  organized,  with  a  well-known  news- 
paper man,  George  Creel,  as  chairman.  From  its  headquarters 
at   Washington,    this    committee    published    a   daily    Official 


590       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 


Bulletin,  which  gave  out  such  military  information  as  could 
properly  be  published.  It  also  prepared  a  series  of  patriotic 
films,  organized  an  army  of  public  speakers,  and  issued  a  series 
of  pamphlets  explaining  the  war  and  its  causes. 

Work  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society.     The  American 
Red  Cross  Society  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the  government 

to  bring  relief  and  comforts 
to  the  men  in  the  camps  and 
on  the  battle  fields.  This 
organization  provided  our 
soldiers  with  hand-knitted 
sweaters,  socks,  and  hel- 
mets, with  comfort  kits  and 
Christmas  parcels.  Thou- 
sands of  the  most  skillful 
surgeons  and  physicians  en- 
listed for  service  with  our 
armies  abroad.  The  Red 
Cross  furnished  them  with 
the  best  equipment  and 
supplies,  maintained  an  am- 
bulance service  manned  by 
heroic  drivers,  built  hos- 
pitals for  the  wounded  men, 
and  did  everything  possible 
to  alleviate  the  horrors  of 
war. 

Germany  Slaughters  the 
Helpless,  and  Calls  it  War. 
The  American  Red  Cross 
also  brought  its  message  of 
relief  and  mercy  to  the  destitute  people  of  Belgium  and  France. 
In  these  countries  a  great  part  of  the  population  had  been  left 
homeless  and  destitute  by  the  savagery  of  the  German  armies. 
For  example,  German  shells  and  German  ruthlessness  had  razed 
one  thousand  French  villages  and  towns  so  completely  that 
often  even  the  sites  of  the  former  buildings  could  not  be  found. 


Clara  Barton 

Founder  of  the  Red  Cross,  from  a  pho- 
tograph taken  in  1875. 

The  work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  the 
World  War  was  a  miracle  of  achievement. 
This  organization  enrolled  in  its  member- 
ship 30,000,000  Americans,  men,  women, 
and  children.  It  collected  $300,000,000 
through  voluntary  contributions,  and  re- 
ceived besides  the  patriotic  services  of  mil- 
lions of  American  women. 


DEMOCRACY   ON   TRIAL 


591 


When  the  German  armies  made  a  slight  retreat  in  the  spring 
of  1917,  they  wantonly  destroyed  everything  in  their  path 
which  could  support  the  population,  even  cutting  down  the 
fruit  trees  and  poisoning  the  wells.  The  able-bodied  men  of 
northeastern  France  and  throughout  the  whole  of  Belgium  were 
sent  to  toil  as  slaves  in  German  mines  and  on  German  farms. 


International  News  Service 

Vise,  Belgium,  after  Bombardment  by  German  Batteries 

The  town  where  the  Germans  committed  the  first  atrocities  on  the  civilian 
population.  So  great  was  the  havoc  wrought  in  Belgium  and  northern  France 
that  an  American  private  wrote  home  :  "Jen,  for  some  days  I  have  been  seeing 
these  French  people  come  home  as  we  take  back  the  country  for  them  day  by 
day.  This  morning  after  I  left  the  chaplain,  I  saw  a  woman  and  two  children 
come  home  to  a  piece  of  a  wall  and  a  door-step  and  a  door-sill.  Jen,  it  might 
have  been  you  and  little  Joe  and  little  Lou.   ..." 

Here  they  were  worked  at  top  speed,  and  fed  on  a  diet  of  bran 
and  water  until  Germany's  medical  experts  pronounced  them 
of  no  more  use  to  the  Kaiser.  They  were  then  sent  back  to 
France  to  die,  along  with  the  old  men  and  young  children, 
whose  ages  made  them  unserviceable  to  Prussian  efficiency. 
In  towns  near  the  border,  the  American  Red  Cross  established 


592       THE   UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


places  of  refuge  where  these  poor  people  could  rest  and  re- 
cuperate. Here  thousands  of  haggard,  helpless  little  children 
and  aged  grandparents  arrived  during  the  summer  and  fall  of 
1917.  So  the  American  Red  Cross  carried  on  a  fight  no  less 
gallant  than  that  of  our  armies,  housing  and  feeding  the  families 
of  stricken  France  and  Belgium,  saving  the  babies,  battling 
against  tuberculosis,  and  building  up  great  hospitals.     Some 

idea  of  their  work,  and  a  true 
picture  of  German  Kultur  may- 
be had  from  one  day's  report  of 
a  Red  Cross  official :  "  There 
arrived  last  week  at  Evian, 
where  the  refugees  from  France 
and  Belgium  are  received  back 
into  France,  a  train  loaded  with 
Belgian  children.  There  were 
680  of  them  —  thin,  sickly,  from 
four  to  twelve  years  of  age  — 
children  of  men  who  refused  to 
work  for  the  Germans  and  of 
mothers  who  let  their  children 
go  rather  than  to  let  them  starve. 
They  poured  off  the  train,  little 
ones  clinging  to  the  older  ones, 
girls  all  crying,  boys  trying  to 
cheer.  They  had  come  all  the 
long  way  alone.  On  the  plat- 
form were  the  Red  Cross  workers  to  meet  them.  Those  chil- 
dren who  could  walk  at  all  marched  along  crying,  '  Meat, 
meat,  we  are  going  to  have  meat.'  Their  little  clawlike  hands 
were  significant,  but  a  doctor  said,  '  We  have  them  in  time ; 
a  few  weeks  of  proper  feeding  and  they  will  pull  up.  Thirty 
per  cent  of  the  older  refugees  die  the  first  month  from  ex- 
haustion.    The  children  can  and  must  be  saved.' ' 

Our  Soldiers  Arrive  in  France.  The  advance  guard  of  the 
American  army  —  a  division  of  regulars  —  reached  France  in 
June,  1917.     Its  leader  was  General  John  J.  Pershing,  a  West 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 

John  J.  Pershing 

Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Ameri- 
can Expeditionary  Forces. 


DEMOCRACY   ON  TRIAL  593 

Point  graduate  who  had  served  in  the  Philippines  and  in  Mexico, 
and  who  was  now  to  have  supreme  command  of  our  armies 
abroad.  Other  troops  followed  as  rapidly  as  they  could  be 
equipped  and  ships  found  to  transport  them;  and  eighteen 
months  after  we  entered  the  war,  we  had  two  million  men  over- 
seas. France  gave  our  soldiers  a  welcome  which  made  every 
true  American  proud  that  we  were  at  last  repaying  our  debt  to 
the  land  of  Lafayette  and  Rochambeau,  the  France  which  had 
given  its  blood  and  treasure  to  make  our  country  free.  -Now 
the  young  giant  of  the  West  was  sending  its  best  manhood  to 
fight  with  France  and  England  and  Italy  to  rescue  Europe 
from  the  black  despotism  which  hung  over  the  whole  world 
like  a  pall.  For  wherever  liberty  and  self-government  had 
developed,  whether  in  France,  or  in  England,  or  in  the  distant 
Orient,  or  in  South  America,  there  the  Imperial  German  gov- 
ernment had  been  its  foe.  Even  in  our  own  fair  land,  German 
autocracy  had  done  its  utmost  to  bring  on  disorder,  to  violate 
law,  to  estrange  our  people  from  their  true  allegiance,  and  to 
discredit  democracy. 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

American  Year  Book,  1915,  1916,  1917,  1918  (under  International 
Relations,  the  Army,  etc.). 

Committee  on  Public  Information:  Various  pamphlets,  especially 
War  Cyclopedia;  How  the  War  Came  to  America;  The  Govern- 
ment of  Germany;    The  Great  War;   German  War  Practices. 

Foerster,  Norman,  and  Pierson,  W.  W.,  Editors,  American  Ideals. 

Gibbons,  Herbert  A.,  The  New  Map  of  Europe. 

Gibbs,  Philip,  The  Way  to  Victory:  I,  The  Menace. 

Harding,  S.  D.,  The  Study  of  the  Great  War;  A  Topical  Outline. 

Hazen,  C.  D.,  Europe  since  1915. 

New  York  Times  Current  History,  vols.  XI-XX. 

Robinson,  E.  E.,  and  West,  V.  J.,  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Woodrow 
Wilson. 

Rose,  J.  H.,  Origins  of  the  War. 

Sarolea,  Charles,  The  Anglo-German  Problem. 

Simonds,  Frank  H.;  History  of  the  Great  War, 


594       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD  POWER 

University  of  Chicago  War  Papers :  The  Threat  of  German  World- 
Politics;  Americans  and  the  World  Crisis;  Democracy,  the  Basis 
of  a  World-Order ;  Sixteen  Causes  of  War. 

Usher,  R.  G.,  Pan-Germanism. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Channing,  Grace  Ellery,  Editor,  War  Letters  of  Edmond  Genet. 

March,  Francis  A.,  History  of  the  World  War. 

Davis,  William  S.,  and  others,  The  Roots  of  the  War. 

Powell,  Lyman  P.,  Editor,  The  Spirit  of  Democracy. 

Thompson,  John  G.,  and  Bigwood,  Inez,  Editors,  Lest  We  Forget. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry,  Fighting  for  Peace. 


i  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Raoul  Lufbery 

This  heroic  American  ace  from  Wallingford,  Connecticut,  was  a  member  of 
the  Lafayette  Escadrille,  a  squadron  of  American  aviators  enlisted  in  the  French 
army.  This  photograph  was  taken  after  an  official  presentation  of  another 
decoration.     Behind  him  stands  a  member  of  the  French  Cabinet. 


CHAPTER   XLVII 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE 


What  Germany  Thought  of  Our  Military  Strength.  Before 
our  entry  into  the  war,  the  German  military  leaders  did  not 
consider  the  United  States 
a  dangerous  enemy.  They 
knew  that  our  army  was  a 
very  small  one,  and  that  we 
lacked  the  rifles,  machine 
guns,  airships,  and  other 
munitions  necessary  for 
modern  warfare.  They  had 
the  mistaken  notion  that 
American  citizens  of  Ger- 
man descent  would  not  sup- 
port their  own  government 
in  case  of  war  with  Ger- 
many. And  in  any  event, 
they  argued,  the  United 
States  could  not  get  ready 
in  time.  The  German  Staff 
expected  its  veteran  divi- 
sions to  win  a  final  decision 
on  the  western  front  before 
our  raw  recruits  could  be- 
come an  effective  fighting 
force.  But  the  training 
camps  of  America,  like  those 
of  Great  Britain,  Canada, 
and  Australia,  were  to  disprove  this  theory.  The  fighting  at 
Belleau  Wood,  Chateau-Thierry,  and  in  the  Argonne  Forest 

595 


i  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Ferdinand  Foch 

Appointed  Commander  in  Chief  of  the 
Allied  armies,  March  28,  1918.  The 
greatest  military  genius  of  the  World 
War,  Marshal  Foch's  brilliant  strategy 
turned  the  tide  of  German  invasion  into 
a  headlong,  disastrous  retreat.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  said  to  the  Allied 
armies:  "You  have  won  the  greatest 
battle  in  history,  and  have  saved  the  most 
sacred  cause  —  the  liberty  of  the  world." 


596      THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

demonstrated  that  the  American  soldier  with  six  months  of 
training  was  more  than  a  match  for  the  German  veteran.  Lack 
of  training  on  the  part  of  our  troops  was  overcome  in  large 
measure  by  native  ingenuity,  courage,  and  skill. 

Russia  Deserts  the  Allies.  When  the  United  States  entered 
the  struggle,  Germany  was  at  the  height  of  her  power,  and  was 
planning  on  a  final  victory  within  the  next  twelve  months. 
Her  armies  then  held  enormous  tracts  of  invaded  territory. 
She  had  crushed  Rumania  and  Serbia,  and  her  iron  heel  was 
over  Belgium  and  northern  France.  Moreover,  by  the  close  of 
1917,  Russia  was  no  longer  on  the  battle  line ;  betrayed  by  her 
leaders,  she  had  deserted  the  Allies.  The  Russian  revolution 
of  March,  1917,  drove  the  czar  from  his  throne,  and  at  first 
it  seemed  probable  that  Russia  would  become  a  democratic 
country,  ruled  by  its  people.  But  soon  the  extreme  socialists, 
or  Bolshevists,  seized  control  of  the  government.  They  dis- 
persed the  National  Assembly  because  it  was  too  moderate  to 
suit  them,  and  began  a  rule  more  tyrannical  and  cruel  than 
that  of  the  czar  himself.  The  leaders  of  this  party,  Lenine  and 
Trotsky,  were  reported  to  be  in  the  pay  of  Germany ;  and  on 
seizing  power  they  declared  in  favor  of  an  immediate  peace. 

The  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk,  March,  1918.  These  false 
leaders  completed  the  betrayal  of  their  country  by  the  shameful 
treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk  between  Russia  and  the  Central  Powers. 
Under  its  terms,  Russia  was  compelled  to  surrender  five  of  her 
western  provinces,  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  Ukraine 
and  of  Finland,  and  to  cede  territory  in  Asia  Minor  to  Turkey. 
One  good  result  came  from  this  treaty :  all  the  world  at  last 
realized  how  false  the  professions  of  the  German  leaders  really 
were.  They  had  told  the  Russians  that  they  would  accept  the 
principle  of  "  peace  without  annexations  and  without  indemni- 
ties." Then  after  her  armies  were  disbanded,  they  forced  Russia 
to  accept  a  treaty  surrendering  56,000,000  of  her  people,  one 
third  of  her  manufactures,  and  three  fourths  of  her  coal  and  iron 
deposits.  From  these  terms  we  can  imagine  what  a  German 
triumph  on  the  western  front  would  have  meant  to  France 
and  Belgium,  and  to  the  cause  of  civilization  itself. 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE 


597 


Anarchy  in  Russia.  Germany  continued  her  invasion  of 
Russia  even  after  the  Bolshevists  had  made  their  abject  sur- 
render. Her  troops  entered  Odessa,  capturing  the  Black  Sea 
fleet,  and  moved  eastward  into  the  Crimea;  meantime,  other 
German  troops  occupied  Finland  and  the  Ukraine.  Russia's 
surrender  left  Rumania  in  a  helpless  position,  surrounded 
by  hostile  powers.  Germany  now  forced 
Rumania  to  accept  a  treaty  that  practically 
made  her  a  vassal  German  state.  Rumania 
ceded  her  province  of  Dobrudja  to  Bulgaria, 
and  promised  to  pay  Germany  a  huge  war 
indemnity. 

Meantime,  the  Bolshevists  in  Russia  in- 
dulged in  an  orgy  of  bloodshed  and  violence. 
Knowing  that  they  represented  only  a  small 
minority  of  the  population,  the  Bolshevists 
believed  that  a  policy  of  terrorism  was 
necessary  to  compel  their  countrymen  to 
accept  their  rule.  Since  the  Allied  powers 
would  not  recognize  this  government 
founded  on  violence,  the  Bolshevists  did 
all  in  their  power  to  injure  the  Allied  cause. 
They  released  the  German  prisoners  of  war, 


The  French  Legion 
of  Honor 


Americans  have  been 
given  this  decoration, 
the  most  prized  distinc- 
tion bestowed  by  the 
French  Republic  for 
the  highest  civil  and 
military  achievements. 


Instituted  by  Napo- 

and  permitted  the  German  armies  to  seize  leon  when  First  Consul, 
great  stores  of  military  supplies  which  the  ^JSSi^JiZ 
Allies  had  sent  into  Russia. 

The  Western  Front  in  1918.  Those  were 
anxious  months  for  the  Allies  when  Russia's 
collapse  released  more  than  one  million  Ger- 
man soldiers  for  use  on  the  western  front. 
The  Allied  armies  were  outnumbered ;  they  had  suffered  cruel 
losses  in  three  years  of  heroic  fighting,  and  only  a  few  American 
divisions  had  as  yet  reached  Europe.  Meantime,  General 
von  Ludendorff,  Chief  of  the  German  Staff,  was  planning  to 
crush  the  Allied  armies  by  a  series  of  hammer  blows.  Five 
great  drives,  or  large-scale  offensives,  were  undertaken  by  the 
German  armies  between  March  21  and  July  18,  1918.    These 


598      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


The  Five  German  Drives  of  1918 

The  ground  the  Germans  gained  in  each  offensive  lies  between  the  broken 
line  (the  Hindenburg  line)  of  March  21  and  the  solid  line  of  July  18.  Under  the 
name  of  each  drive  appear  the  American  units  brigaded  with  the  French  and 
English. 


were  intended  to  accomplish  three  objects :  (1)  to  drive  a 
wedge  between  the  British  and  French  armies ;  (2)  to  seize 
the  Channel  ports;  (3)  to  capture  Paris  and  compel  France 
to  sue  for  peace. 

The  Germans  did  not  gain  any  of  their  objectives,  but  for 
long  weeks  the  Allied  armies  were  in  deadly  peril.  This  was 
because  they  were  outnumbered  two  to  one,  sometimes  even 
three  or  four  to  one,  at  the  point  of  attack.  The  German  plan 
of  offensive  was  to  make  a  secret  concentration  of  selected  men, 
called  shock  troops,  at  some  point ;  then  by  a  surprise  attack 
to  break  through  the  Allied  line  before  re  enforcements  could 
be  brought  up.     In  meeting  these  offensives,  the  Allies  were 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE 


599 


under  two  disadvantages.  First,  they  could  not  know  where 
the  Germans  would  strike  until  after  the  offensive  began.  Then 
too,  the  Allied  armies  were  not  under  a  single  commander,  so 
that  it  was  difficult  to  move  British  troops  to  the  aid  of  the 
French,  or  to  bring  up 
French  soldiers  when  the 
British  needed  re  enforce- 
ments. 

The  Drive  toward 
Amiens,  March,  1918.  The 
first  German  drive  was  a 
thrust  toward  Amiens,  in- 
tended to  drive  a  wedge 
between  the  British  and 
French  forces.  So  fierce 
was  the  onslaught  that  the 
Fifth  British  Army  was 
crushed  by  sheer  weight  of 
numbers,  its  48  divisions 
overwhelmed  by  114  of  the 
enemy.  For  a  few  critical 
hours  the  Allied  line  was 
actually  pierced,  but  the 
gap  was  closed  by  General 
Carey.  He  rounded  up 
every  available  man,  includ- 
ing laborers,  clerks,  dis- 
mounted cavalry,  and  a 
regiment  of  American  engineers ;  and  this  scratch  army  in  tem- 
porary trenches  held  back  the  enemy  for  six  days.  However, 
another  drive  of  equal  depth  would  mean  supreme  disaster  for 
the  Allies.  The  Germans  had  advanced  for  a  distance  of 
twenty-five  miles,  bringing  Amiens  and  the  main  lateral  railway 
behind  the  British  lines  within  reach  of  their  artillery. 

In  this  crisis  it  was  determined  to  place  all  of  the  Allied 
forces  under  one  commander  in  chief.  There  was  no  difficulty 
in  deciding  who  should  fill  this  important  position;    for  the 


Joseph  Jacques  Jofifre 

Marshal  Joffre,  or  "Papa"  JofTre,  as  he 
is  affectionately  named  by  the  French 
people,  will  always  have  a  secure  place  in 
history  as  the  commander  who  saved 
France  in  the  first  battle  of  the  Marne. 
On  his  visit  to  this  country  in  1917,  New 
York  City  presented  the  veteran  marshal 
with  a  golden  miniature  of  the  Statue  of 
Liberty. 


600      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 


X 


French  leader,  General  Ferdinand  Foch,  was  a  master  of  strat- 
egy and  the  greatest  military  genius  of  the  World  War.  Foch 
was  the  hero  of  the  first  battle  of  the  Marne,  when  France  saved 
the  world's  civilization  from  German  attack.  It  was  during 
this  battle  that  he  sent  his  famous  dispatch  to  Marshal  Joffre : 
"  The  enemy  is  attacking  my  flank.     My  rear  is  threatened. 

I  am  therefore   at- 
tacking in  front." 

The  decision  for 
a  unified  command 
had  the  cordial  sup- 
port of  General 
Pershing  and  of 
Secretary  of  War 
Baker,  who  was  then 
in  France  to  learn 
at  first  hand  about 
the  military  situa- 
tion. They  cabled 
their  views  to  Presi- 
dent Wilson,  who 
promptly  sent  a 
message  to  the  new 
commander  in  chief, 
congratulating  him 
on  his  appointment.  General  Pershing  at  once  went  to  the 
headquarters  of  Marshal  Foch,  and  said :  "  The  American 
people  would  hold  it  a  great  honor  for  our  troops  were  they 
engaged  in  the  present  battle.  .  .  .  Infantry,  artillery,  avia- 
tion— all  that  we  have  —  are  yours  to  dispose  of  as  you  will." 
When  these  words  were  published,  they  thrilled  all  France  and 
all  America  as  well. 

The  Thrust  at  the  Channel  Ports,  April,  1918.  The  second 
German  drive  was  an  attempt  to  break  through  the  British 
lines  in  Flanders  and  .reach  the  Channel  ports  of  Dunkirk, 
Calais,  and  Havre.  The  invaders  gained  some  three  hundred 
square  miles  of  territory,  but  they  suffered  immense  losses  and 


i  Underwood  and  Under aood. 

Sir  Douglas  Haig 

Succeeded  Sir  John  French  as  commander  in 
chief  of  the  British  armies  in  France.  With  forces 
much  smaller  than  those  opposed  to  him,  Field- 
Marshal  Haig  held  on  with  true  British  tenacity, 
until  the  day  came  for  the  final  victorious  advance 
of  the  Allied  armies.  Since  Wellington,  Britain  has 
had  no  better  soldier. 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE  601 

failed  to  reach  the  coast.  After  three  weeks  of  heroic  resistance 
by  the  British  troops,  Field-Marshal  Sir  Douglas  Haig  issued 
his  famous  order:  "  Every  position  must  be  held  to  the 
last  man.  There  must  be  no  retiring.  With  our  backs  to  the 
wall,  and  believing  in  the  justice  of  our  cause,  each  one  of  us 
must  fight  to  the  end.  The  safety  of  our  homes,  and  the  free- 
dom of  mankind  depend  alike  upon  the  conduct  of  each  one  of 
us  at  this  critical  moment." 

Help  came  to  the  British  army  at  bay  just  in  time  to 
avert  disaster.  First  to  arrive  were  the  French  dragoons, 
covered  with  dust  from  their  seventy-mile  ride.  Next  came 
the  French  infantry  in  motor  lorries,  column  after  column, 
a  winding  river  of  blue  pouring  in  behind  the  thin  lines  of 
khaki.  The  British  had  support  at  last,  and  the  enemy  could 
not  pass.  Yet  the  menace  was  still  there,  for  Rupprecht,  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria,  held  twenty-nine  divisions  in  re- 
serve, waiting  until  the  French  reinforcements  should  be 
called  away. 

The  German  Drive  against  Paris.  On  May  27  the  Ger- 
mans struck  against  the  French  lines  opposite  Soissons  and 
Rheims,  in  an  attempt  to  reach  Paris.  The  French  reserves 
had  been  concentrated  in  the  region  south  of  Amiens,  near  the 
junction  of  the  British  and  French  fronts.  Hence  only 
light  reserves  were  available  when  twenty  enemy  divisions, 
about  300,000  men,  were  suddenly  hurled  at  100,000  French 
troops  holding  this  part  of  the  line.  German  tanks  and  shock 
troops  quickly  swept  over  the  front-line  trenches,  while  the 
artillery  hurled  gas  shells  into  the  area  behind  the  Allied  lines, 
so  as  to  cut  off  retreat.  The  invaders  crossed  the  Aisne,  they 
crossed  the  Vesle,  and  swept  on  toward  the  Marne.  The 
new  battle  front  formed  a  vast  triangle,  with  its  apex  pointing 
toward  Paris,  only  forty-four  miles  away.  Once  again,  as 
before  that  first  battle  of  the  Marne,  the  French  capital  was 
in  deadly  peril.  The  army  that  had  ravaged  Belgium  and 
looted  northern  France  was  almost  at  its  gate.  Hidden  in 
the  forest  of  Coucy,  a  "  Big  Bertha  "  was  hurling  shells  for  a 
distance  of  seventy-five  miles  into  the  city  itself. 


602      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD  POWER 


American  Troops  Defend  Chateau-Thierry.  The  Allies 
faced  a  situation  as  grave  as  during  the  March  offensive. 
Marshal  Foch  needed  every  available  man.  In  this  crisis 
the  Third  Division  of  American  troops,  which  had  just  finished 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 


Chateau- Thierry 


In  this  town  on  June  6,  1918,  our  troops  prevented  the  Germans  from  crossing 
the  bridge  over  the  Marne.  When  the  great  Allied  advance  began,  they  charged 
up  this  street,  unchecked  by  the  German  machine  guns  placed  in  the  clock  tower 
from  which  this  photograph  was  taken. 

its  preliminary  training  in  the  trenches,  was  hurried  to  the 
Marne.  Its  motorized  machine-gun  battalion  preceded  it, 
and  hejd  the  bridgehead  at  Chateau-Thierry  against  repeated 
enemy  assaults.  Near  Jaulgonne,  German  troops  managed 
to  cross  the  Marne,  but  the  infantry  of  the  Third  Division 
promptly   thrust   them   back   again.     Meantime   our   Second 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE  603 

Division,  composed  of  the  5th  and  6th  Regiments  of  Marines, 
and  the  9th  and  23d  Infantry,  was  rushed  up  in  motor  trucks 
from  near  Montdidier.  This  division  captured  the  village  of 
Bouresches,  and  held  its  ground  against  the  famous  Prussian 
Guards. 

The  Marines  Capture  Belleau  Wood.  Next  came  the  order 
to  the  Marine  Brigade  to  capture  Belleau  Wood ;  and  in  the 
fight  that  followed,  American  marines  proved  themselves  the 
equal  of  the  British  at  Ypres,  of  the  Canadians  at  Mons,  of  the 
French  themselves  at  Verdun.  Belleau  Wood  was  filled  with 
machine-gun  nests,  effectively  screened  by  the  dense  forest; 
and  the  German  defenders  outnumbered  our  men  by  at  least 
three  or  four  to  one.  But  the  marines  never  faltered ;  singly 
and  in  little  groups  they  attacked  the  machine-gun  crews, 
using  their  rifles,  hand-grenades,  automatics,  and  bayonets. 
For  eleven  days  they  pushed  their  way  steadily  through  the 
forest,  fighting  against  terrific  odds.  Companies  that  went 
into  the  battle  two  hundred  and  fifty  strong  dwindled  to  fifty 
men,  sometimes  with  only  a  sergeant  left  in  command.  The 
Germans  brought  up  reserves,  and  concentrated  their  artillery 
fire  on  the  woods,  which  they  were  ordered  to  retake  at  all 
costs.  They  used  up  three  divisions  in  repeated  assaults, 
but  the  thin  line  of  marines  held  fast.  By  June  24  the  last 
German  was  driven  out  of  the  woods,  and  1400  prisoners  were 
on  their  way  to  the  rear.  Soon  afterwards  the  name  Belleau 
Wood  was  changed  by  an  official  order  of  the  French  to  Bois 
de  la  Brigade  de  Marine  (Wood  of  the  Marine  Brigade). 

The  action  of  which  this  fighting  formed  a  part  came  to 
an  end  on  July  1,  when  infantry  regiments  of  the  Second  Division 
captured  the  town  of  Vaux,  on  the  Metz  to  Paris  road.  As  a 
result  of  this  month  of  bloody  fighting,  the  German  rush  toward 
Paris  was  definitely  and  finally  stopped.  It  was  the  heroic 
French  and  British  armies,  aided  by  the  timely  arrival  of 
American  troops,  which  brought  this  about.  The  American 
troops  did  what  fresh  blood  can  sometimes  accomplish  on  a 
football  field.  Until  they  came,  the  Germans  had  been  steadily 
advancing  toward  the  Allies'  goal,  attacking  first  one  part  of 


604      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


the  line,  then  another,  for  gains  that  brought  them  nearer  and 
ever  nearer  to  Paris.  Then  the  Americans  came  on  the  field, 
—  reserve  players,  young  and  inexperienced  at  the  game,  but 
with  a  firm  resolution  to  hold  the  line  at  all  costs.  Their 
dauntless  spirit  put  new  heart  into  the  gallant  French  and 
British  armies;  the  line  held,  and  within  a  few  months  the 
Germans  were  fighting  desperately  to  defend  their  own  goal. 


U.  S.  Official  /'holograph. 

An  American  Patrol  Advancing  North  of  Verdun 

This  ruined  house  at  Montfaucon  was  the  observatory  of  the  German  Crown 
Prince  during  his  unsuccessful  campaign  against  Verdun. 

The  Last  German  Drives.  General  von  Ludendorff  was  like 
a  gambler  led  on  by  his  gains  to  take  more  and  more  chances. 
After  his  enormous  sacrifice  of  men,  he  did  not  dare  give  up 
the  offensive  and  admit  his  failure.  So  on  June  9  he  began  a 
fourth  drive  between  Noyon  and  Montdidier.  This  time  French 
reserves  were  at  hand,  and  the  Germans  were  repulsed  with 
immense  losses.  The  fifth  and  last  German  drive  came  on 
July  15,  when  Von  Ludendorff  hurled  seventy  divisions  against 
the  Rheims  front.     By  this  time  the  Allied  lines  had  been 


THE   TURNING   OF   THE   TIDE 


605 


strengthened  by  large  numbers  of  American  troops.  Part  of 
our  Forty-second,  or  Rainbow  Division,  held  the  position  east 
of  Rheims  against  every  attack;  the  Twenty-sixth  Division 
captured  Torcy ;  and  the  Third  Division  held  the  bank  of  the 
Marne  opposite  Chateau-Thierry.     At  this  point  a  large  force  of 


International  News  Service. 


French  Infantry  on  the  Double,  Following  up  the  German  Retreat 

In  the  first  battle  of  the  Marne  these  heroic  poilus  won  immortal  fame  for 
themselves  and  for  France.  Later,  at  Verdun,  in  the  longest  pitched  battle  of 
history,  they  stood  like  a  cold  blue  rock  against  which  the  German  armies  were 
broken  and  shattered. 


German  infantry  tried  to  force  its  way  across  the  river  under 
cover  of  smoke  screens,  and  supported  by  powerful  artillery. 
By  sacrificing  a  large  number  of  men,  the  Germans  gained  a 
temporary  foothold  on  the  southern  bank.  The  American  lines 
were  bent  back  for  a  brief  space,  but  it  was  the  recoil  of  a  spring  ; 
for  immediately  afterwards  our  "  doughboys  "  rushed  forward 
with  resistless  force,  driving  the  Germans  across  the  river. 


606      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

The  Turning  of  the  Tide,  July  18,  1918.  This  splendid  de- 
fense at  the  third  battle  of  the  Marne  paved  the  way  for  the 
brilliant  counter-strokes  by  which  Marshal  Foch  within  a  few 
months  brought  Germany  to  her  knees.  Foch  launched  his 
first  counter-offensive  on  July  18.,  an  attack  from  Chateau- 
Thierry  along  a  twenty-five  mile  front  between  the  Marne  and 
the  Aisne.  The  place  of  honor  in  this  offensive  was  given  to 
the  First  and  Second  Divisions  of  American  troops,  cooperating 
with  the  famous  Moroccan  division  of  the  French  army.  Bat- 
tling incessantly  day  and  night,  the  Allied  forces  pushed  the 
invaders  back  across  the  Marne  to  the  Vesle.  This  successful 
attack  forced  the  Germans  from  a  position  that  menaced  Paris, 
and  marked  the  turning  of  the  tide.  The  offensive  had  passed 
from  the  Germans  to  the  Allies,  and  under  Marshal  Foch's 
bewildering  blows,  the  invading  armies  were  thrust  back  first 
at  one  point,  than  at  another.  There  were  now  more  than 
one  million  American  soldiers  in  France,  and  their  numbers 
and  proven  fighting  ability  made  it  possible  to  undertake  a' 
vast  offensive  against  the  enemy. 

American  Troops  Capture  St.  Mihiel.  Up  to  this  time, 
American  soldiers  had  been  brigaded  with  British  and  French 
troops  at  different  points  along  the  western  front.  Early 
in  August,  1918,  our  First  Army  was  organized  under  the 
personal  command  of  General  Pershing.  This  army  took  over 
the  defense  of  the  line  running  through  St.  Mihiel  to  a  point 
opposite  Verdun.  Early  in  the  war,  the  Germans  had  crossed 
the  Meuse  River  at  St.  Mihiel,  in  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  en- 
circle Verdun.  This  made  a  peculiar  hook  or  salient  in  their 
line ;  the  Germans  called  it  a  dagger  pointed  at  the  heart  of 
eastern  France. 

Our  First  Army  received  permission  to  attack  St.  Mihiel 
on  September  12.  After  four  hours  of  artillery  preparation, 
seven  American  divisions  leaped  from  their  trenches  in  the 
early  dawn,  and  moved  forward  to  the  assault.  Attacking 
both  sides  of  the  salient  at  once,  they  broke  down  the  enemy's 
defenses  at  all  points,  capturing  village  after  village,  and  finally 
occupied  St.   Mihiel  itself.     So  rapid  was  the  advance  that 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE 


607 


several  German  cooks  found  themselves  obliged  to  serve  to 
the  Americans  hot  food  that  had  been  prepared  for  their  own 
men.  In  this  first  offensive,  the  American  army  captured 
16,000  prisoners  and  hundreds  of  guns,  gained  its  objective, 
and  placed  itself  in  a  position  to  threaten  the  fortress  of  Metz. 
As  General  Pershing  said  :  "  The  Allies  found  they  had  a  formid- 
able army  to  aid  them,  and  the  enemy  learned  finally  that  he 
had  one  to  reckon  with." 


'■'. 


©  U.  S.  Official  Photograph. 

Motor  Transport  of  Infantry  to  the  Front 

The  3d  Battalion,  39th  Regiment,  4th  Division,  leaving  Rimaucourt,  Haute 
Marne,  for  the  Argonne  battle  front. 


A  few  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  the  vast  preparations 
necessary  for  an  attack  like  that  against  St.  Mihiel.  The 
services  of  600,000  men  were  employed  in  or  behind  the  lines. 
One  hundred  thousand  detailed  maps  and  40,000  photographs 
were  printed  and  distributed,  showing  accurately  every  enemy 
trench  line,  gun  position,  hill,  stream,  and  road  within  the  area 
of  attack.  Five  thousand  miles  of  telephone  wire  were  laid, 
connecting  6000  instruments ;  4800  automobile  trucks  were 
used  to  carry  the  men  and  supplies  to  the  front ;  while  in  the 
rear,  70,000  hospital  beds  were  made  ready  for  the  wounded. 


608       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

More  than  1,500,000  shells  were  fired  during  the  engagement, 
besides  millions  of  rounds  of  small-arm  ammunition. 

Our  Campaign  in  the  Argonne  Forest.  The  victory  at*  St. 
Mihiel  brought  the  American  lines,  close  to  the  outlying  forts 
of  Metz,  and  made  possible  the  next  move  of  our  army.  This 
was  its  splendid  advance  through  the  Argonne  Forest,  the 
objective  being  the  railroad  line  running  through  Sedan  and 
Mezieres.  The  action  of  our  First  Army  was  timed  to  corre- 
spond with  that  of  General  Gouraud's  Fourth  French  Army, 
advancing  up  the  west  side  of  the  Argonne  as  our  men  pushed 
up  the  east  side.  The  two  armies  were  then  to  unite,  cutting 
the  enemy's  communications  by  rail,  and  crowding  the  Germans 
back  upon  the  Ardennes  Forest,  through  which  a  retreat  was 
almost  impossible. 

On  September  26,  American  troops  fought  their  way  through 
the  barbed  wire  entanglements  and  across  the  shell  craters  of 
No  Man's  Land.  Six  of  the  nine  initial  attacking  divisions 
had  never  been  in  a  battle  before,  yet  they  soon  captured  the 
enemy's  first  line  defenses.  There  were  four  of  these  lines 
in  all,  running  parallel  and  quite  close  together,  so  that  they 
formed  one  quadruple  system  of  defense.  Moreover,  the 
enemy's  lines  ran  through  a  hilly,  densely  wooded  region,  mak- 
ing his  position  so  strong  that  for  four  years  it  had  been  looked 
upon  as  impregnable.  Yet  between  September  26  and  Novem- 
ber 7,  the  American  army  did  the  impossible ;  it  broke  through 
those  four  lines  and  reached  Sedan.  Our  troops  advanced 
rapidly  during  the  first  days,  but  soon  the  combat  settled  down 
into  a  steady,  relentless  struggle.  The  Germans  had  ample 
facilities  for  bringing  up  reserves,  and  they  used  up  forty  divi- 
sions in  a  vain  effort  to  hold  their  positions.  Our  troops  ad- 
vanced against  machine  guns  spitting  their  hail  of  bullets, 
while  thousands  of  cannon  belched  out  shrapnel  and  explosive 
shells.  One  American  battalion,  advancing  beyond  its  supports, 
was  cut  off  and  entirely  surrounded  by  German  troops.  Prac- 
tically without  food  or  water,  the  members  of  this  heroic  "  lost 
battalion  "  defended  themselves  for  three  days  against  incessant 
attack,  until  finally  rescued  by  their  advancing  comrades. 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE 


609 


At  last,  after  six  weeks  of  terrific  fighting,  the  fourth  German 
line  was  pierced.  The  American  army,  reached  Sedan,  twenty- 
five  miles  from  the  point  of  departure.  It  had  bagged  16,000 
prisoners,  and  gained  its  objective.  General  Pershing  reported  : 
"  We  had  cut  the  enemy's  main  line  of  communications,  and 
nothing  but  surrender  or  an  armistice  could  save  his  army  from 
complete  disaster."  The  battle  of  the  Meuse-Argonne  was 
the  greatest  ever  fought  by  American  troops,  and  one  of  the 
greatest   battles  in   history.     More   than  1,000,000  American 


U.  S.  Official  Photograph. 

Blasting  a  Way  through  the  Argonne  Forest 

Battery  D,  128th  Regiment,  Field  Artillery,  at  Les  Cotes  de  Florimont.  On 
specially  constructed  tracks,  this  railroad  mount  followed  up  the  German  retreat 
through  No  Man's  Land. 

soldiers  took  part  in  the  forty-seven  days  of  fighting  ;  our 
artillery  fired  4,200,000  rounds  of  ammunition  —  more  than 
that  used  by  the  Union  forces  during  the  entire  Civil  War  ; 
16,000  Germans  and  3000  machine  guns  were  captured, 
while  our  men  paid  for  their  splendid  victory  with  120,000 
casualties. 

Germany  Attempts  a  Peace  Drive,  October,  1918.  Mean- 
time, the  Germans  had  fared  no  better  elsewhere  along  the 
western  front.  In  Flanders  the  British  forces,  aided  by  Belgian 
and   American   divisions,   had   waged   a   successful   offensive. 


610      THE   UNITED  STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 


All  of  the  Belgian  coast  was  recaptured,  besides  the  important 
French  cities  of  Lens  and  Lille.  In  the  center,  the  vaunted 
Hindenburg  line  had  been  pierced ;  Cambrai,  St.  Quentin,  and 
Laon  were  taken.  Two  American  divisions  under  the  command 
of  General  Rawlinson  took  part  in  the  attack  at  this  point. 
"  No  troops  ever  fought  more  valiantly,"  said  their  British 
commander.  "  Inexperience  cost  them  more  men  than  they 
should  have  lost,  but  their  courage  and  de- 
termination in  the  face  of  tremendous  ob- 
stacles was  magnificent."  Field-Marshal  Sir 
Douglas  Haig,  the  British  commander  in 
chief,  gave  our  men  this  tribute :  "  The 
deeds  of  the  Twenty-seventh  and  Thirtieth 
American  divisions  which  took  Bellecourt 
and  Nauroy,  and  gallantly  sustained  the 
desperate  struggle  for  Bony,  will  rank  with 
the  highest  achievements  of  the  war." 

With  the  Hindenburg  line  broken  in  the 
center  at  Cambrai,  and  torn  from  its  anchor 
position  on  the  North  Sea,  the  Germans  had 
no  other  course  except  a  general  retreat  from 
France  and  Belgium;  but  a  retreat  before 
the  victorious  Allied  armies  promised  swift 
disaster.  The  mailed  fist  having  failed,  Ger- 
many resolved  to  try  cunning  instead.  Her  government  re- 
quested President  Wilson  for  an  armistice,  to  be  followed  by  a 
peace  based  on  the  principles  announced  by  him.  Realizing  that 
a  crushing  military  defeat  was  at  hand,  Germany  hoped  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  while  she  still  held  Belgium  and  northern  France  as  a 
pawn.  The  President  replied  that  he  could  not  entertain  any  sug- 
gestion for  an  armistice  so  long  as  the  German  armies  remained 
in  the  countries  which  they  had  invaded.  Only  the  military  ad- 
visers of  the  American  and  Allied  forces  could  do  this,  on  terms 
that  would  make  it  impossible  for  Germany  to  renew  hostilities. 
The  Surrender  of  Bulgaria  and  Turkey.  On  the  Balkan 
front  the  Allied  line  extended  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
iEgean,  with  headquarters   at  Saloniki.     This  line  was  held 


The  French  Croix  de 
Guerre  with  Palm 


THE   TURNING  OF  THE   TIDE 


611 


by  a  mixed  force  of  British,  French,  Serbians,  Greeks,  and  Ital- 
ians, under  the  command  of  General  D'Esperey.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1918,  the  Allies  began  one  of  the  most  successful  campaigns 
of  the  war.  Advancing  up  the  Vardar  Valley,  the  Allied  troops 
cut  the  communications  between  the  two  Bulgarian  armies. 
The  Bulgarians  retreated 
eastward  through  the  hills, 
abandoning  Albania  and 
Servia.  Within  two  weeks 
after  the  offensive  began, 
Bulgaria  asked  for  an  armis- 
tice, accepted  the  terms 
offered,  and  withdrew  from 
the  war. 

Bulgaria's  surrender  broke 
the  line  of  communications 
between  the  Central  Powers 
and  Turkey.  Constanti- 
nople, already  menaced  by 
the  Allied  forces  at  Saloniki, 
was  soon  threatened  from  a 
new  direction.  In  the  Jordan 
Valley,  General  Allenby's 
British  army  waged  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  campaigns 
of  the  war.  Aided  by  the 
Arabs,  the  British  forces 
destroyed  three  Turkish 
armies,  occupied  Damascus, 
the  capital  of  Syria,  and  advanced  against  Aleppo.  Turkey 
now  followed  Bulgaria's  example  and  sued  for  peace.  The 
terms  offered  and  accepted  on  October  31,  1918,  were  virtually 
a  complete  surrender.  Nine  days  later,  British  and  French 
destroyers  entered  the  Dardanelles,  while  British  troops  took 
possession  of  the  forts  around  Constantinople. 

The  Collapse  of  Austria,  November  3,  1918.     A  few  days 
more  witnessed  the  collapse  of  Austria.     Her  armies  in  Italy 


Sergeant  York 

Alvin  C.  York  was  a  Tennessee  moun- 
taineer gathered  in  by  the  draft.  While  in 
action  in  the  Argonne  offensive,  he  used  his 
rifle  and  pistol  so  effectively  that  25  Ger- 
mans were  killed  and  132  others  surren- 
dered to  him  in  the  belief  that  they  were 
opposed  by  overwhelming  numbers.  Ser- 
geant York's  feat  was  one  of  the  greatest 
individual  exploits  of  the  war. 


612      THE   UNITED  STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 


had  won  a  great  success  at  Caporetto ;  but  in  October,  1918, 
General  Diaz  began  an  offensive  which  practically  destroyed 
the  Austrian  armies.  Their  retreat  became  a  rout  before  the 
rapid  advance  of  the  Italians,  who  captured  400,000  prisoners 
and  7000  guns.  Austria  now  begged  for  an  armistice,  which 
was  signed  on  November  3.  The  terms  were  more  drastic 
than  those  imposed  upon  Bulgaria,  for 
Austria  was  regarded  as  the  chief  accom- 
plice in  Germany's  crime. 

Germany  Sues  for  Peace,  November, 
1918.  Deserted  by  her  allies,  and  realizing 
that  her  armies  in  France  faced  a  supreme 
military  disaster,  Germany  was  obliged  to 
sue  for  peace.  Her  request  for  an  armistice 
was  forwarded  by  President  Wilson  to  the 
Interallied  Council  at  Versailles.  This  body 
drew  up  the  terms  which  Marshal  Foch  sub- 
mitted to  the  Germans  on  November  7. 
Germany's  delegates  signed  the  armistice  at 
five  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  November 
11,  while  Marshal  Foch  signed  on  behalf  of 
the  Allies.  At  eleven  o'clock,  fighting  ceased 
on  all  fronts,  and  the  World  War  was  prac- 
tically at  an  end.  Meanwhile,  the  German  Emperor  and  Crown 
Prince  had  fled  to  Holland,  while  General  von  LudendorfT  took 
refuge  in  Sweden,  and  Admiral  von  Tirpitz  in  Switzerland. 
One  by  one,  the  rulers  of  the  various  German  states  were  forced 
to  abdicate  their  thrones.  Germany  was  swept  by  a  revolu- 
tion directed  against  her  military  leaders. 

The  armistice  terms  were  drawn  with  the  idea  of  making 
it  impossible  for  Germany  to  renew  the  war.  She  agreed  to 
evacuate  Belgium,  France,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  Luxemburg, 
as  well  as  the  German  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
Allied  and  American  troops,  advancing  into  Germany  close  upon 
the  rear  of  her  retreating  armies,  were  to  occupy  the  Rhine 
cities  of  Mayence,  Coblenz,  and  Cologne,  with  the  bridge- 
heads on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river.     Germany  was  to  evacu- 


Order  of  the  Crown 
of  Italy 


THE   TURNING  OF  THE   TIDE 


613 


ate  Russia  and  Rumania,  and  annul  her  shameful  treaties  with 
those  countries.  She  was  obliged  to  surrender  all  of  her  prison- 
ers of  war  without  reciprocal  action  on  the  part  of  the  Allies ; 
to  give  up  immense  military  stores,  including  25,000  machine 
guns  and  1700  aeroplanes ;  to  surrender  all  of  her  submarines, 
together  with   10  battleships,   6  cruisers,   and  50  destroyers. 


i 

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f         i                                         i  ^  **£   ^££r*^*v'*x 

wm 

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j^L  ■    ■  ■ 

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*%SirNtt— " ""..  •■ " ':^~~ 1 

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©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

The  Army  of  Occupation  at  Coblenz  . 

A  column  of  American  troops  crossing  the  pontoon  bridge  over  the  Rhine 
to  help  enforce  the  conditions  of  the  armistice.  Coblenz  was  a  favorite  city 
of  the  Kaiser,  who  maintained  a  palace  there. 


The  armistice  was  to  last  for  thirty  days,  but  could  be  extended 
by  mutual  consent. 

President  Wilson's  Peace  Principles.  Following  the  con- 
clusion of  the  armistice,  preparations  were  made  for  a  confer- 
ence at  Paris  to  draw  up  the  treaty  of  peace.  Its  terms  were 
to  be  based  upon  the  fourteen  points  named  by  President  Wilson 
in  his  message  to  Congress ;  for  these  had  been  accepted  by 
the  Allies  and  by  Germany  as  embodying  the  principles  of  a 
just  peace.     These  points,  briefly  stated,  were  as  follows : 


614      THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 


The  Return  of  the  Fleet 


The  first  ships  of  the  navy  to  return  after  the  armistice,  photographed  as 
they  lay  at  anchor  in  the  Hudson  River. 


H 


<h 


(1)  Open  covenants  of  peace,  openly  arrived  at. 

(2)  Freedom  of  the  seas,  in  peace  and  war. 

(3)  Equality  of  trade  conditions. 

(4)  Reduction  of  armaments. 

(5)  Adjustment  of   colonial   claims  with  reference  to  the 
wishes  of  the  governed  population. 

(6)  Evacuation  of  all  Russian  territory. 

(7)  Evacuation  and  restoration  of  Belgium. 

(8)  Evacuation  of  French  territory,  restoration  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine. 

(9)  Readjustment  of  Italy's  frontiers  along  lines  of  nation- 
ality. 

(10)  Independence    and    self-government    for   the    different 
peoples  of  Austria-Hungary. 

(11)  Independence  of  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro. 

(12)  Relinquishment  of  Turkish   control  over  non-Turkish 
populations. 

(13)  Erection  of  an  independent  Polish  state,  with  free  and 
secure  access  to  the  sea. 

(14)  A  League  of  Nations  to  guarantee  independence  and 
territorial  integrity  to  great  and  small  states  alike. 


THE   TURNING   OF  THE   TIDE  615 

Our  Troops  Return  Home.  Soon  after  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  the  United  States  began  to  demobilize  the  largest 
army  it  had  ever  called  into  existence.  Within  nine  months 
all  of  the  men  had  been  brought  back  to  the  United  States, 
except  our  comparatively  small  army  of  occupation.  The 
home-coming  of  the  troops  was  the  signal  for  enthusiastic  recep- 
tions and  public  demonstrations  from  one  end  of  the  country 
to  the  other.  The  honor  was  deserved ;  for  our  soldiers  had 
fought  gallantly,  and  had  helped  to  win  the  most  stupendous 
conflict  of  history. 

Another  great  welcome  was  that  given  to  the  Atlantic  Fleet, 
which  for  two  years  had  guarded  the  seas  under  Admiral  Sims 
and  Rear  Admiral  Mayo.  On  April  14,  1919,  the  fleet  steamed 
in  stately  column  into  New  York  Harbor  and  up  the  Hudson. 
There  were  104  ships,  including  twelve  superdreadnoughts, 
seventy  destroyers,  and  ten  submarines.  This  was  only  a 
part  of  the  great  navy  which,  like  our  army,  had  done  its  full 
part  in  winning  the  final  victory  for  democracy. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Barbusse,  Henry,  Under  Fire. 
Clemenceau,  Georges,  France  Facing  Germany. 
Daniels,  Josephus,  The  Navy  and  the  Nation. 
Dorr,  Rheta  Childe,  A  Soldier's  Mother  in  France. 
Gibbs,  Philip,  The  Way  to  Victory:  II,  The  Repulse. 
Gompers,  Samuel,  American  Labor  and  the  War. 
Latane,  John  H.,  From  Isolation  to  Leadership. 
Law,  Sidney,  Italy  in  the  War. 

Mc Master,  John  Bach,  The  United  States  in  the  World  War. 
March,  Francis  A.,  History  of  the  World  War. 
Marcosson,  Isaac  F.,  S.  0.  S.  —  America's  Miracle  in  France. 
Masefield,  John,  The  War  and  The  Future. 

Speare,  Morris  E.,  and  Norris,  Walter  B.,  World  War  Issues  and 
Ideals. 


616       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Bott,  Alan,  Cavalry  of  the  Clouds. 

Canfield,  Dorothy,  Home  Fires  in  France. 

Catlin,  Brigadier  General  A.  W.,  With  the  Help  of  God  and  A  Few 

Marines. 
Gibbons,  Floyd,  And  They  Thought  We  Wouldn't  Fight. 
Hall,  James  Norman,  Kitchener's  Mob. 
Hay,  Ian,  The  First  Hundred  Thousand. 
Masefield,  John,  Gallipoli. 
Palmer,  Frederick,  America  in  France. 
Thompson,  John  G.,  and  Bigwood,  Inez,  Winning  a  Cause. 
Watkins,  Dwight  E.,  and  Williams,  Robert  E.,  Editors,  The  Forum 

of  Democracy. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

The  Terror  of  the  Submarine 

The  U.  S.  Destroyer  Fanning,  with  depth  bombs  stored  in  run-ways  on  the 
after-deck.     These  may  be  instantly  released  and  dropped  over  the  stern. 


CHAPTER   XLVIII 


DEMOCRACY'S   VICTORY  AND   ITS   MEANING 

The  Peace  Conference.  The  greatest  Peace  Congress  in 
all  history  assembled  at  Paris  on  January  18,  1919.  All  of 
the  nations  which  had  declared  war  against  Germany  were 
represented  by  delegates ; 
and  President  Wilson  him- 
self headed  the  delegation 
from  the  United  States.  It 
was  decided  that  the  five 
great  Powers  —  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy,  and  Japan 
—  should  be  represented  by 
five  delegates  each ;  while 
other  countries  were  to  send 
one  or  two  delegates,  ac- 
cording to  their  importance. 
Most  of  the  decisions  of  the 
Congress  were  made  by  the 
Council  of  Four,  consisting 
of  President  Wilson,  and 
Premiers   Lloyd  George  of 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George. 

David  Lloyd  George 

The  greatest  British  Premier  since  Wil- 


Great   Britain,   Clemenceau     Ham   Pitt;     and   like   Pitt,  Lloyd  George 
c  -e,  j    r\  1       j         r     saved  the  empire.    This  fearless,  outspoken 

of  France,  and  Orlando  of    Welshman  headed  the  coalition  cabinet 

Italy.      Delegates   from  the     which   carried  Great  Britain  through  the 
Other    Allied    nations    took     neatest  struggle  of  her  history  to  victory. 

part  in  the  conference  whenever  questions  came  up  that  directly 
concerned  their  own  countries. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  session,  Premier  Clemenceau  was 
unanimously   elected   presiding   officer.     Long   weeks   of   dis- 

617 


618      THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 


cussion  followed,  during  which  the  Congress  attempted  to 
reconcile  conflicting  national  claims,  and  to  settle  on  a  just 
basis  the  difficult  problems  arising  from  the  war.  Above  all, 
the  Peace  Congress  aimed  to  accomplish  three  great  objects : 

(1)  To  promote  coopera- 
tion among  nations,  and  to 
remove  the  menace  of  future 
wars. 

(2)  To  compel  Germany 
to  make  reparation  for  the 
immense  losses  of  life  and 
property  due  to  her  attempt 
at  military  conquest. 

(3)  To  recognize  and  safe- 
guard the  principle  of  nation- 
ality, by  giving  political  and 
economic  freedom  to  peoples 
that  were  being  ruled  against 
their  will  by  other  nations. 

The  League  of  Nations. 
The  Congress  agreed  that  a 
League  of  Nations  was  nec- 
essary to  remove  the  menace 
of  war  which  for  centuries 
had  hung  over  Europe  like  a 
pall.  The  delegates  shared 
the  opinion  of  President 
Wilson,  who  said,  "The  arrangements  of  the  present  peace 
cannot  stand  a  generation,  unless  they  are  guaranteed  by  the 
united  forces  of  the  civilized  world."  Accordingly,  a  committee 
of  fifteen  delegates,  with  President  Wilson  as  chairman,  was 
appointed  to  work  out  a  plan  for  a  League  of  Nations. 

President  Wilson  presented  the  revised  constitution  or 
covenant  for  the  League  on  April  28,  1919.  The  preamble 
states  the  objects  for  which  the  League  was  formed,  namely, 
to  promote  cooperation,  peace,  and  security  among  nations. 
Thirty-two  countries  were  included  as  original  members,  while 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Georges  Clemenceau 

As  Premier  of  France,  Clemenceau, 
nicknamed  the  "Tiger,"  never  faltered, 
even  in  her  darkest  hour.  His  magnetic 
leadership  inspired  his  countrymen  to 
make  their  long,  heroic  stand  in  defense 
of  the  liberty  of  France  and  the  freedom 
of  the  world. 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND  ITS  MEANING     619 

thirteen  others  were  invited  to  join.  Germany  and  her  allies 
were  not  included,  but  may  be  admitted  later  when  they  have 
learned  to  respect  treaties  and  international  law.  The  powers 
of  the  League  are  vested  in  an  Assembly  and  a  Council.  The 
Assembly  is  the  larger  body ;  in  it  each  member  nation  is  repre- 
sented, and  casts  one  vote.  The  Council  consists  of  nine  mem- 
bers, one  representative  from  each  of  the  five  great  powers, — 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan; 
together  with  four  others  selected  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Assembly.  The  permanent  seat  of  the  League  is  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland. 

Rights  and  Duties  of  Members.  Members  of  the  League 
assume  certain  obligations  toward  one  another,  as  follows : 

(1)  To  reduce  their  armies  and  navies  as  suggested  by  the 
Council,  but  only  with  their  own  consent. 

(2)  To  exchange  full  information  as  to  military  and  naval 
programs. 

(3)  To  respect  the  territorial  and  personal  independence 
of  each  member  of  the  League,  and  to  guarantee  each  member 
against  foreign  aggression. 

(4)  To  submit  all  international  disputes  either  to  arbitration, 
or  to  judicial  inquiry  by  the  Council  of  the  League.  If  the  dis- 
puting nations  choose  arbitration,  a  peaceful  settlement  fol- 
lows as  a  matter  of  course.  If  they  prefer  the  method  of 
judicial  inquiry,  the  League  has  six  months  in  which  to  file  its 
report.  The  covenant  stipulates  that  there  shall  be  no  war 
until  at  least  three  months  after  this  report  is  filed,  so  that  a 
total  delay  of  nine  months  is  insured  before  resort  can  be  made 
to  military  action. 

(5)  To  regard  a  country  which  violates  the  covenant  as  hav- 
ing committed  an  act  of  war  against  the  League.  Its  members 
will  then  break  off  economic  and  other  relations  with  the  guilty 
state,  and  may  send  troops  against  it. 

(6)  To  submit  all  new  treaties  to  the  Secretary  General  of 
the  League  for  publication. 

By  a  special  clause  it  is  provided  that  nothing  in  the  covenant 
shall  affect  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  or  similar  understandings 


620       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

in  the  interests  of  peace.  The  former  German  colonies,  as 
well  as  the  subject  races  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  are  hereafter 
to  be  governed  by  countries  appointed  by  the  League  to  act  as 
guardians  or  mandataries.  This  plan  is  intended  to  em- 
phasize the  principle  of  responsibility  in  dealing  with  backward 
and  uncivilized  peoples.  Members  of  tKe  League  also  agree 
to  endeavor  to  secure  fair  and  humane  treatment  of  labor  in 


i  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Germany  Learns  Her  Fate  at  Versailles 

The  Peace  Conference  assembled  in  the  great  hall  of  the  Trianon  Palace 
Hotel  at  Versailles.  The  tables  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  huge  horseshoe, 
with  seats  for  the  sixty-nine  delegates.  Premier  Clemenceau  as  President  of 
the  Conference  is  announcing  the  Allied  peace  terms  to  the  Germans,  who  are 
at  the  extreme  left  in  the  picture. 


all  countries;  to  aid  in  suppressing  the  traffic  in  opium  and 
other  dangerous  drugs;  and  to  encourage  and  promote  the 
work  of  the  Red  Cross. 

Germany  Receives  the  Peace  Terms.  After  nearly  four 
months  of  discussion,  the  treaty  of  peace  was  completed.  It 
was  presented  to  the  German  delegates  on  May  7,  1919,  —  the 
fourth  anniversary  of  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania.  The  con- 
ference between  the  representatives  of  the  Allies  and  the  Ger- 
man delegates  took  place  in  the  dining  hall  of  the  Trianon 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND   ITS   MEANING      621 

Palace  Hotel  at  Versailles.  Premier  Clemenceau,  President 
of  the  Peace  Conference,  addressed  the  Germans  as  follows : 

"  This  is  neither  the  time  nor  the  place  for  superfluous 
words.  You  have  before  you  the  accredited  representatives 
of  all  the  small  and  great  powers  united  to  fight  together  in 
the  war  that  has  been  so  cruelly  imposed  upon  them.  The 
time  has  come  when  we  must  settle  our  account. 

"  You  have  asked  for  peace.  We  are  ready  to  give  you 
peace.  We  shall  present  to  you  now  a  book  which  contains 
our  conditions.  You  will  have  every  facility  to  examine  these 
conditions,  and  the  time  necessary  for  it.  You  will  find  us 
ready  to  give  you  any  explanation  you  want,  but  we  must  say 
at  the  same  time  that  this  second  Treaty  of  Versailles  has  cost 
us  too  much  not  to  take  on  our  side  all  the  necessary  precautions 
and  guarantees  that  the  peace  shall  be  a  lasting  one." 

Copies  of  the  treaty  were  then  handed  to  the  German  envoys, 
who  were  asked  whether  they  had  anything  to  say.  Without 
rising  from  his  seat,  their  spokesman  read  a  speech  in  which 
he  admitted  Germany's  utter  defeat,  but  tried  to  disclaim  her 
responsibility  for  the  origin  of  the  war,  and  for  the  atrocities 
she  had  committed  during  its  progress.  "  Crimes  in  war 
may  not  be  excusable,"  said  he,  "  but  they  are  committed  in 
the  struggle  for  victory  and  in  the  defense  of  national  existence, 
and  passions  are  aroused  which  make  the  conscience  of  peoples 
blunt."  Such  was  the  German  excuse  for  plunging  the  world 
into  a  war  that  cost  eight  million  lives ! 

Aims  of  the  Peace  Treaty.  The  terms  offered  to  Germany 
provide  the  basis  of  a  just  and  durable  peace.  The  treaty 
aims  to  secure  four  great  objects :  first,  the  future  peace  of 
the  world ;  second,  the  permanent  destruction  of  German  mili- 
tarism ;  third,  reparation  for  the  damage  wrought  by  Germany's 
invading  armies  and  by  her  lawless  submarines ;  fourth, 
freedom  for  the  subject  peoples  held  unwillingly  under  the 
German  yoke. 

(1)  Security  for  the  world's  peace.  An  earnest  attempt  was 
made  to  safeguard  the  world's  peace  by  establishing  a  League 
of  Nations,  the  covenant  of  which  forms  the  first  part  of  the 


622       THE   UNITED   STATES   AS  A   WORLD   POWER 


treaty.  As  an  additional  guarantee  of  peace,  a  supplementary 
agreement  has  been  drawn  up  between  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  France.  This  treaty,  if  ratified  by  the  United 
States  Senate  and  the  British  Parliament,  pledges  each  of  these 
countries  "  to  come  immediately  to  the  assistance  of  France 
in  case  of  unprovoked  attack  by  Germany." 

(2)  Overthrow  of  German  militarism.  The  treaty  draws  the 
fangs  from  Prussian  militarism.     It  makes  a  safe  neighbor  out 

of  the  nation  which  aimed  to  dominate  the 
world  by  military  might,  by  ruthless  con- 
quest, by  the  violation  of  treaties  and  in- 
ternational law.  Germany's  vast  military 
framework,  built  up  in  forty  years  of  prep- 
aration for  world  conquest,  is  completely 
shattered.  She  is  required  to  abolish  con- 
scription ;  her  army  is  restricted  to  200,000 
men,  made  up  of  volunteers  who  enlist  for 
a  term  of  twelve  years ;  and  she  must  raze 
all  forts  and  military  works  within  a  zone 
thirty-one  miles  east  of  the  Rhine,  so  as  to 
make  it  difficult  for  her  to  launch  new  inva- 
sions toward  the  west. 

On  the  sea,  Germany  becomes  powerless 
for  harm.  Before  the  war  she  claimed  a 
naval  strength  second  only  to  that  of  Great 
Britain.  The  treaty  reduces  her  navy  to  six  battleships, 
six  cruisers,  and  twelve  torpedo  boats,  with  a  personnel  of 
25,000  men.  Germany  must  dismantle  Heligoland,  her  island 
fortress  guarding  the  Kiel  Canal;  she  must  open  that  canal 
to  all  nations,  and  surrender  her  fourteen  ocean  cables.  Ger- 
many must  sweep  up  the  mines  in  the  North  and  Baltic  seas ; 
she  is  to  have  no  submarines  or  war  aircraft ;  and  she  is  to  dis- 
continue the  import,  export,  and  production  of  practically  all 
war  materials. 

(3)  Reparation.  Germany  accepts  full  responsibility  for 
the  damage  to  other  countries  from  a  war  resulting,  as  she  is 
required  to  admit,  from  her  own  aggression.     She  must  pay 


The    English    Distin- 
guished Service  Order 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND   ITS  MEANING      623 


immense  sums  for  the  destruction  of  property  in  invaded  terri-^ 
tory,  besides  pensions  for  cripples  and  for  the  families  of  slain 
soldiers,  compensation  for  enforced  labor  (as  in  case  of  the 
deported  Belgians  and  French),  and  payments  for  requisitions 
made  in  occupied  districts.  The  total  amount  of  these  damages 
will  be  fixed  by  an  Allied  Reparation  Commission.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  Germany  will  be  required  to  pay  a  total  sum  of 
$25,000,000,000,  or  about  one  twentieth  of  the  money  loss  to 
the  world  from  her  policy  of  militarism. 
Germany  is  to  pay  the  first  instalment  of 
$5,000,000,000  within  two  years,  and  bonds 
running  thirty  years  will  be  issued  for  later 
payments. 

The  losses  inflicted  upon  Allied  shipping 
by  Germany's  submarines  must  be  in  part 
repaid  by  the  surrender  of  all  German 
merchant  vessels  of  over  1600  tons,  and  by 
her  promise  to  build  new  ships  for  the  Allies. 
In  other  words,  Germany  is  required  to  re- 
place about  3,000,000  tons  of  the  14,000,000 
tons  of  shipping  that  she  destroyed.  Ger- 
many must  also  help  rebuild  the  devastated 
regions  of  France  and  Belgium.  She  must 
restore  the  machinery,  works  of  art,  and 
other  goods  stolen  by  her  invading  enemies, 
or  pay  for  them  in  money.  The  coal  mines  of  the  Saar  Basin 
are  to  become  the  property  of  France,  as  compensation  for  the 
wanton  destruction  of  the  mines  in  northern  France.  Allied 
troops  are  to  occupy  the  German  territory  lying  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  French  and  Belgian  borders  for  a  period  of 
fifteen  years ;  but  this  occupation  will  be  reduced  at  the  end 
of  each  five-year  period,  if  Germany  is  fulfilling  her  obligations. 

(4)  Freedom  for  subject  peoples.  In  Europe,  Germany  gives 
up  about  33,000  square  miles  of  territory  won  by  former  con- 
quests, and  inhabited  chiefly  by  people  who  have  never  wished 
to  be  German.  Thus  she  cedes  Alsace-Lorraine  to  France, 
thereby  righting  her  theft  of  those  provinces  in  1871.     She 


The 


Belgian    Croix 
de  Guerre 


H 


624      THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

cedes  to  Belgium  two  small  districts  (380  square  miles)  between 
Luxemburg  and  Holland.  Poland  receives  upper  Silesia, 
most  of  Posen,  and  a  bit  of  West  Prussia.  Danzig  on  the  Baltic, 
with  about  seven  hundred  square  miles  of  surrounding  territory, 
is  taken  from  Germany  and  internationalized ;  that  is,  put 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  League  of  Nations,  so  as  to  give 
Poland  access  to  the  Baltic  Sea.  Three  other  districts  are 
placed  under  international  control,  the  people  to  determine  by 
popular  vote  whether  they  will  remain  under  German  rule. 
A  portion  of  East  Prussia  will  vote  whether  to  join  Poland  or 
Germany;  part  of  Schleswig  will  decide  between  Germany 
and  Denmark;  and  after  fifteen  years,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Saar  Basin  will  choose  between  France  and  Germany. 

Thus  Germany  cedes  definitely  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the 
state  of  Maine ;  and  if  the  popular  vote  goes  against  her,  she 
may  lose  additional  territory  about  the  size  of  New  Hampshire. 
She  becomes  in  area  smaller  than  Spain ;  and  in  addition,  East 
Prussia  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  Germany  by  the  Polish 
"  corridor,"  a  strip  of  territory  connecting  Poland  with  the 
Baltic.  But  her  most  serious  loss  is  that  of  raw  materials. 
With  the  surrender  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  Germany  loses  five 
sevenths  of  her  iron  ore,  together  with  much  of  her  potash  and 
coal ;  and  the  transfer  of  upper  Silesia  takes  away  most  of 
her  remaining  iron,  together  with  her  richest  coal  deposits. 

Outside  of  Europe,  Germany  gives  up  all  territorial  rights, 
including  her  colonies  in  Africa,  her  islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  Kiaochow  in  China,  —  in  all,  one  million  square 
miles  of  territory.  Germany  had  made  a  complete  failure  of 
her  attempt  to  govern  colonies ;  for  she  showed  toward  the 
partly  civilized  peoples  under  her  rule  the  same  arrogance  and 
brutality  that  characterized  her  policy  throughout  the  World 
War.  The  League  of  Nations  will  have  general  charge  of  the 
former  German  colonies,  but  will  appoint  a  particular  nation 
to  administer  each  group.  Great  Britain  and  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  will  govern  most  of  Germany's  former  possessions 
in  Africa.  Japan  receives  the  islands  north  of  the  equator, 
besides  Kiaochow,  which  she  holds  in  trust  for  China.     Aus- 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND   ITS  MEANING     625 

tralia  will  govern  Germany's  former  islands  south  of  the  equator, 
except  her  Samoan  islands,  which  go  to  New  Zealand. 

Severe  but  Just  Terms.  Other  provisions  of  the  treaty  are 
only  second  in  importance  to  those  already  described.  Ger- 
many recognizes  the  independence  of  Poland,  of  the  new  Czecho- 
slovak Republic,  and  of  the  states  formerly  a  part  of  Russia. 
She  accepts  in  advance  whatever  arrangements  are  made  with 
her  former  allies,  Austria-Hungary,  Turkey,  and  Bulgaria. 
She  annuls  the  treaties  imposed  by  her  armies  upon  Russia 
and  Rumania.  Finally,  Germany  agrees  to  the  trial  of  the 
former  kaiser  by  an  international  tribunal  "  for  a  supreme  offense 
against  international  morality  and  the  sanctity  of  treaties." 
She  also  agrees  to  surrender  for  trial  the  military  leaders  respon- 
sible for  German  atrocities  in  Belgium  and  northern  France. 

These  terms,  though  severe,  were  just.  Germany  was  not 
entitled  to  be  treated  <as  a  brave  but  vanquished  foe.  Her 
position  was  rather  that  of  a  desperate  criminal,  who  with  ut- 
most difficulty  is  at  last  arrested  and  brought  before  the  bar  of 
international  justice.  Germany  had  rebelled  against  civiliza- 
tion, and  made  a  wreck  of  Europe  in  her  gambler's  throw  for 
world  dominion.  Her  lust  for  world  dominion  cost  the  lives 
of  eight  million  men,  lives  given  in  vain  unless  effective  measures 
were  taken  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  her  monstrous  crime. 

The  Attitude  of  Germany.  When  the  peace  terms  were 
published,  a  storm  of  protest  and  denunciation  swept  over 
Germany.  Chancellor  Scheidemann,  in  his  speech  before  the 
National  Assembly  at  Weimar,  described  the  treaty  as  a  dread- 
ful document.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  Germany  signed  the 
armistice,  she  accepted  the  principle  of  full  reparation.  Now, 
however,  German  leaders  and  newspapers  loudly  proclaimed 
that  it  was  beyond  Germany's  power  to  make  adequate  repara- 
tion. To  do  this,  said  Scheidemann,  would  be  to  make  an 
enormous  jail  of  Germany,  in  which  60,000,000  persons  would 
have  to  labor  for  the  victors  in  the  war.  President  Wilson 
was  the  target  for  venomous  attacks  by  the  German  press. 
It  was  asserted  that  the  President  had  abandoned  his  fourteen 
peace  principles,  and  that  Germany  would  never  have  agreed 


626      THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

to  the  armistice  had  she  anticipated  these  terms  of  peace. 
These  hypocritical  protests  deceived  no  one  outside  of  Ger- 
many. That  country  had  accepted  the  armistice  in  order 
to  avoid  the  greatest  military  collapse  in  history;  and  the 
armistice  itself  distinctly  sets  forth  the  principles  afterwards 
carried  out  in  the  peace  treaty.     The  discussion  of  the  peace 


I  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Surrender  of  the  German  High  Seas  Fleet 

No  navy  in  history  ever  made  so  ignominious  a  surrender.  The  British 
Grand  Fleet,  accompanied  by  five  American  battleships  and  three  French 
cruisers,  steamed  from  its  Scottish  base  to  accept  the  surrender  on  November 
21,  1918.  The  Grand  Fleet  was  arranged  in  two  single  lines,  six  miles  apart, 
so  formed  as  to  enable  the  surrendering  fleet  to  come  up  between  them. 


terms  by  the  German  press  and  public  leaders  showed  that 
Germany  was  not  repentant  for  having  sinned,  but  only 
regretful  for  having  failed.  j| 

The  German  battleships  surrendered  in  accordance  with 
the  armistice  had  been  interned  at  Scapa  Flow,  north  of  Scot- 
land. These  ships  were  scuttled  on  June  21  by  the  German 
crews  left  in  charge,  acting  under  orders  from  the  German 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND  ITS  MEANING     627 

admiral,  and  in  direct  violation  of  the  armistice  terms.  This 
act  completed  the  infamy  of  the  German  navy.  It  made  war  on 
unarmed  passenger  and  merchant  ships,  surrendered  without  a 
fight,  and  then  treacherously  sank  the  surrendered  property. 

Signing  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  June  28,  1919.  Germany 
submitted  her  counter-proposals  on  May  29.  She  objected 
to  nearly  all  of  the  terms  proposed,  refused  all  cessions  of 
territory,  asked  immediate  admission  to  the  League  of  Nations, 
and  demanded  that  the  Allies  evacuate  German  territory  within 
four  months  after  signing  the  treaty.  After  some  interchange 
of  notes,  Germany  was  informed  that  the  terms  must  be  accepted 
within  a  given  time ;  meanwhile  Marshal  Foch  was  instructed  to 
hold  his  armies  ready  to  advance.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  German  National  Assembly  voted  to  accept  the  treaty. 
The  ceremony  of  signing  took  place  at  Versailles  on  June  28, 
1919.  An  unusual  feature  on  this  occasion  was  the  presence, 
within  the  space  reserved  for  the  high  officials  of  the  conference, 
of  forty-five  enlisted  men  from  the  French,  British,  and  Amer- 
ican armies.  This  was  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the 
enlisted  men  of  the  world's  democracies  who  were  the  real  arti- 
sans of  the  new  world  order. 

The  Treaty  with  Austria.  While  the  Germans  were  debating 
their  peace  terms,  the  Peace  Conference  received  the  Austrian 
delegates  at  St.  Germain  (June  2,  1919).  They  represented 
the  Republic  of  Austria ;  for  the  old  Austro-Hungarian  empire 
had  ceased  to  exist.  With  the  defeat  of  the  Austrian  armies  in 
Italy,  the  empire  itself  broke  into  fragments.  Hungary  pro- 
claimed its  independence ;  the  Poles  in  Galicia  joined  with  their 
brethren  in  Russia;  the  Czechs  of.  Austria  united  with  the 
Slovaks  of  Hungary  to  form  a  new  republic ;  the  Slovenes  and 
Croats  joined  with  the  Serbs  toward  the  south ;  Italy  took 
over  her  coveted  lands  along  the  Adriatic  coast ;  and  Rumania 
occupied  Transylvania,  an  Austrian  province  peopled  chiefly 
by  Rumanians. 

Thus  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire  had  already  broken  up 
into  several  independent  states;  and  the  treaty  of  St.  Ger- 
main required  Austria  to  recognize  and  accept  this  situation. 


628       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 


Before  the  World  War,  the  Germans  of  Austria  and  the  Mag- 
yars of  Hungary  combined  to  rule  an  empire  of  260,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  50,000,000.  To-day  Austria  has  a 
territory  of  approximately  25,000  square  miles,  with  7,500,000 
people ;  while  Hungary  has  about  the  same  area  and  population. 
The  Bolshevist  Tyranny  in  Russia.  On  coming  into  power 
in  Russia,  the  Bolsheviki,  or  extreme  Socialists,  inaugurated  a 
rule  of  violence  and  bloodshed.  They  abolished  even  the  most 
primitive  forms  of  justice,  and  thousands 
of  persons  suspected  of  being  unfriendly  to 
Bolshevism  were  shot  or  hanged  without 
the  semblance  of  a  trial.  Every  news- 
paper which  did  not  favor  the  cause  was 
suppressed ;  the  right  of  holding  public 
meetings  was  abolished ;  and  the  Constit- 
uent Assembly,  an  anti-Bolshevist  body 
elected  by  the  Russian  people,  was  forcibly 
dissolved. 
^^A^".;>^3r  The  Bolsheviki  would  not  fight  against 
the  Germans,  to  whom  they  had  surren- 
dered one  third  of  Russia's  territory ;  but 
they  were  ready  to  fight  and  plunder  their 
The  United  States  own  countrymen.  The  most  savage  blows 
were  aimed  at  the  educated  classes,  at  the 
men  who  had  accumulated  property,  or 
who  were  managing  industries.  The  Bolsheviki  seized  all  the 
mills,  stores,  and  factories  throughout  Russia,  without  any 
compensation  to  the  owners ;  so  that  private  enterprise  was 
everywhere  destroyed.  Having  removed  from  industry  its 
intelligent  directing  force,  as  represented  by  the  owners  and 
managers,  the  Bolsheviki  themselves  undertook  to  operate  the 
factories,  aided  by  committees  of  workmen. 

It  was  soon  found  that  factories  operated  by  committees 
could  not  pay  expenses.  In  the  metal  trades,  in  the  linen, 
woolen,  and  cotton  mills,  and  in  the  coal  mines,  production 
shrank  more  than  50  per  cent.  As  a  result  of  unemployment 
and  disease,  the  population  of  Petrograd  decreased  from  2,125,- 


Distinguished  Service 
Cross 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND  ITS  MEANING     629 

000  to  650,000.  Throughout  the  country  as  a  whole,  conditions 
were  almost  as  bad.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives  were  lost 
from  starvation  and  disease,  so  that  in  the  end  the  Bolshevist 
tyranny  cost  Russia  more  lives  than  the  war  itself.  Thus  the 
silly  economic  theories  of  the  Bolsheviki  brought  ruin  on  the 
workmen  and  peasants,  as  well  as  on  the  wealthier  classes. 
To-day  Russia  is  facing  national  bankruptcy,  the  only  sure 
source  of  income  being  the  government  printing  presses,  which 
have  flooded  the  country  with  worthless  paper  money. 

The  Effort  to  Give  Russia  Majority  Rule.  Not  all  of  Russia 
was  cowed  by  the  Red  Terror.  Siberia,  the  Don  region,  and 
the  Caucasus  declared  their  independence,  and  fought  for  it. 
British  and  French  marines  were  landed  at  Murmansk  and 
Archangel  to  aid  these  independent  Russians,  and  to  prevent 
the  Bolsheviki  from  seizing  immense  military  stores  belonging 
to  the  Allies.  A  joint  force  of  Japanese,  British,  French,  and 
Americans  afterwards  occupied  Vladivostok,  the  eastern  termi- 
nal of  the  Siberian  railroad.  In  a  campaign  to  clear  the  country 
of  Bolshevist  troops,  this  force  advanced  for  many  miles  along 
the  line  of  the  railroad.  It  was  aided  by  a  force  of  Czecho- 
slovaks, soldiers  who  had  surrendered  to  the  Russians  in  order 
to  escape  further  service  in  the  Austrian  armies.  But  the 
Allied  troops  in  Russia  were  too  many  for  peace,  and  too  few 
for  war.  They  were  gradually  withdrawn,  since  it  was  recog- 
nized that  Russia  must  work  out  her  own  salvation. 

Attempts  to  Spread  Bolshevism.  Not  the  least  among  the 
crimes  of  the  Bolshevist  leaders  was  their  attempt  to  undermine 
the  governments  of  other  countries,  so  as  to  bring  on  a  uni- 
versal revolution.  To  accomplish  this,  they  relied  upon  bomb 
outrages,  the  destruction  of  factories  and  material,  and  the 
stirring  up  everywhere  of  class  hatred.  Lenine  succeeded  in 
introducing  Bolshevism  into  Hungary,  but  he  failed  in  Switzer- 
land owing  to  the  energetic  action  of  the  Swiss  government. 
An  attempt  was  also  made  to  undermine  our  own  government 
by  the  spread  of  Bolshevist  doctrines  in  the  United  States. 
But  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  dealt  a  severe  blow  to 
these  agitators  when  its  national  convention  voted   against 


630       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER 

the  proposed  general  strike,  and  against  other  revolutionary 
schemes.  American  labor  realizes  what  the  Bolsheviki  fail 
to  appreciate,  —  that  the  same  blow  which  destroys  capital, 
destroys  trade  and  industry  as  well.  Bolshevist  doctrines  will 
never  become  popular  in  the  United  States.  Our  government  is 
founded  on  the  will  of  the  majority,  as  embodied  in  the  consti- 
tution and  the  laws.  Bolshevism  stands  for  the  tyranny  of  the 
few,  and  relies  for  its  existence  upon  bloodshed  and  violence. 

Results  of  the  War.  The  consequences  of  the  World  War 
are  many  and  far-reaching ;  they  may  determine  the  course  of 
our  own  history,  as  well  as  that  of  Europe,  for  ages  to  come. 
Some  of  these  consequences  are  apparent  to-day,  while  others 
will  only  be  revealed  with  the  lapse  of  years.  One  of  the  out- 
standing results  is  the  tremendous  loss  of  life  and  property. 
The  World  War  cost  the  lives  of  7,781,000  soldiers.  Of  this 
number  the  Allies  lost  4,869,000,  while  the  death  toll  of  the 
Central  Powers  was  2,912,000.  The  total  number  of  wounded 
exceeded  18,000,000,  about  one  third  of  whom  are  almost  totally 
disabled.  The  United  States  lost  48,900  men  killed  in  battle, 
while  230,000  were  wounded,  and  57,000  died  from  disease. 

The  money  cost  of  the  war  is  estimated  at  $450,000,000,000. 
Of  this  sum,  $200,000,000,000  represents  direct  outlay  in  war 
expenditures ;  while  the  indirect  cost  in  diminished  trade  and 
financial  disturbance  is  estimated  at  $250,000,000,000.  The 
war  cost  the  United  States  about  $22,000,000,000,  or  nearly 
enough  to  pay  all  the  expenditures  of  our  national  government 
from  1791  down  to  the  present  day.  In  addition  to  this  enor- 
mous outlay,  the  United  States  loaned  to  the  Allies  nearly 
$10,000,000,000. 

International  Law  and  Morality  Vindicated.  The  principle 
of  guilt  and  reparation  for  any  nation  starting  an  unprovoked 
war  is  established.  It  is  settled  that  no  nation,  however  strong, 
may  tear  up  treaties,  throttle  international  law,  wage  an  in- 
human war  of  conquest,  and  then  go  unpunished.  Another 
immediate  result  of  the  war  is  the  creation  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  which  may  prove  an  important  factor  in  securing  inter- 
national peace  and  cooperation. 


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DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND  ITS  MEANING     631 

A  New  Map  of  Europe.  The  new  independent  countries 
now  appearing  on  the  map  of  Europe  were  formerly  held  in 
subjection  by  stronger  states.  Their  freedom  is  the  direct 
result  of  democracy's  triumph  in  the  World  War,  which  for 
them  was  a  war  of  liberation.     Among  these  new  states  are  : 

(1)  Poland,  one  of  the  oldest  countries  of  Europe,  which 
many  years  ago  was  partitioned  among  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  and  so  disappeared  from  the  map.  Its  people  have 
always  longed  for  freedom.  The  new  Polish  Republic  includes 
a  considerable  part  of  Poland's  ancient  territory,  and  with  Dan- 
zig under  international  control,  has  an  outlet  on  the  Baltic  Sea. 

(2)  The  Czecho-Slovak  Republic  includes  the  Bohemians, 
the  Czechs,  and  other  Slavic  peoples  formerly  under  the  rule  of 
Austria-Hungary. 

(3)  Jugo-Slavia,  or  the  new  South-Slav  kingdom,  includes 
Servia  and  Montenegro,  together  with  Bosnia,  Herzegovina, 
and  other  districts  ceded  by  Austria-Hungary. 

(4)  The  Ukraine,  or  southwestern  part  of  old  Russia.  The 
loss  of  this  region  was  a  severe  blow  to  Russia,  for  it  comprises 
nearly  300,000  square  miles  of  fertile  territory,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  40,000,000.  The  people  of  the  Ukraine  refused  to  accept 
the  Bolshevist  tyranny;  they  set  up  their  own  government, 
and  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence. 

(5)  Finland,  Esthonia,  Courland,  and  Lithuania,  states 
which  declared  their  independence  of  Bolshevist  Russia.  The 
independence  of  Finland  has  been  recognized  by  the  Allied 
powers ;  the  status  of  the  other  countries  will  be  determined 
by  the  League  of  Nations,  and  may  depend  upon  the  restora- 
tion of  order  and  majority  rule  within  Russia  itself. 

(6)  The  new  Italy.  The  boundaries  of  Italy  are  extended 
to  include  the  lands  peopled  largely  by  Italians,  but  formerly 
held  by  Austria-Hungary.  Italy  entered  the  war  in  order  to 
liberate  the  Italians  in  Trentino,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia.  The 
Peace  Conference  awarded  part  of  these  districts  to  her,  but 
reserved  for  Jugo-Slavia  certain  areas  peopled  chiefly  by  Slavs. 
The  war  has  given  Italy  her  natural  frontiers,  the  Alps,  which 
from  the  time  of  the  Romans  have  served  as  a  barrier  against 


632       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWEFt 

Germanic  barbarism.  Italy  dominates  the  Adriatic  Sea,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  which  she  holds  Istria  and  part  of  Dalmatia, 
with  the  important  ports  of  Trieste  and  Fiume.  The  entire 
territory  adjoining  the  latter  port  is  peopled  by  Slavs,  and  at 
one  time  the  dispute  over  Fiume  became  so  serious  that  Italy's 
delegates  withdrew  from  the  Peace  Congress. 

(7)  The  Ottoman  Empire,  like  that  of  Austria  and  Russia, 
was  completely  shattered  as  a  result  of  the  war.  The  Peace 
Conference  will  probably  place  Constantinople  under  the  special 
guardianship  of  the  League  of  Nations.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  United  States  should  act  in  the  same  capacity  for 
Syria,  and  that  Great  Britain  should  take  Mesopotamia  and 
Palestine.  Arabia  will  become  an  independent  state  under 
the  King  of  the  Hedjaz,  the  faithful  ally  of  General  Allenby. 
Smyrna  has  been  awarded  to  Greece.  So  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
with  its  long  record  of  massacres  and  misrule,  has  practically 
disappeared  from  the  map. 

Closer  Relations  with  the  World's  Democracies.  It  was  not 
only  to  protect  our  own  democracy,  but  also  to  secure  the  right 
of  self-government  for  all  peoples,  that  the  United  States  en- 
tered the  war.  Like  Crusaders  of  old,  America's  men  went 
forth  to  take  their  part  in  the  world  struggle  of  democracy  and 
right  against  militarism  and  evil.  The  victory  was  not  an 
American  victory  ;  it  was  a  world  victory,  in  which  our  country 
gave  great  and  probably  indispensable  aid  in  a  supreme  crisis. 
But  the  victory  could  never  have  been  won  without  the  gal- 
lant armies  of  France  and  Great  Britain,  which  fought  the  long 
stern  fight  for  four  years.  The  sacrifices  made  in  common  by 
the  democracies  of  the  world  have  br6ught  them  into  closer 
relationship  than  ever  before.  We  have  learned  that  the 
people  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy  are  inspired  by  the 
same  ideals  as  those  of  our  own  great  Republic.  We  can  never 
go  back  to  our  old  policy  of  indifference  toward  European 
affairs ;  and  in  fact,  we  renounced  our  policy  of  isolation  twenty 
years  ago,  when  Dewey's  guns  sank  the  Spanish  fleet  in  Manila 
Bay.  We  are  interested  in  the  future  welfare  of  every  country 
in  Europe,  especially  its  democracies. 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND   ITS  MEANING     633 

The  German  press  and  public  leaders  have  openly  declared 
that  Germany  signed  the  treaty  under  compulsion,  and  that 
she  will  regard  it  as  only  a  scrap  of  paper.  Thus  the  war 
has  not  changed  Germany's  attitude  toward  her  international 
obligations,  for  in  1914  she  held  her  solemn  treaty  concerning 
Belgium  as  only  another  scrap  of  paper.  Hence  the  outstand- 
ing lesson  of  the  war  is,  that  the  United  States  must  cooperate 


I  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

General  Pershing  Decorating  American  Troops  in  France 

American  officers  and  enlisted  men  who  distinguished  themselves  for  excep- 
tional bravery  under  fire  are  being  rewarded  with  enviable  decorations. 

as  closely  as  possible  with  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Italy. 
The  decisions  of  the  peace  treaty  will  prove  of  value  only  in  so 
far  as  they  are  upheld  by  the  powers  which  won  the  victory  and 
dictated  the  peace. 

Three  great  powers  of  the  world  are  to-day  the  guarantors 
that  democracy  shall  not  again  be  assailed  by  military 
hordes  bent  on  conquest.  This  is  the  reason  *why  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  have  been  asked  to  promise  their 


634       THE   UNITED   STATES  AS  A   WORLD   POWER 

assistance  if  France  is  again  wantonly  attacked  by  Germany. 
For  unless  the  German  people  show  a  different  spirit,  France 
must  continue  to  hold  the  gate  of  the  world's  civilization,  just 
as  she  did  by  her  heroic  defense  at  the  Marne.  Germany  will 
pause  long  before  repeating  her  attack  if  she  knows  that  back 
of  the  heroic  French  poilus,  the  first  line  of  defense,  stand  the 
English  tommies  and  the  American  doughboys. 

Closer  Relations  between  the  Two  Americas.     The  World 
War  has  linked  the  two  Americas  in  friendship  and  trade  more 


Underwood  and  Underwood. 

The  Type  of  Navy  Airplane  to  Make  the  First  Trans-Oceanic 
Flight,  May,  1919 

The  N-C  1  being  moored  to  a  buoy  in  Trepassy  Bay,  Newfoundland.  Her 
sister-ship,  the  N-C  4,  with  Lieutenant-Commander  A.  C.  Read  in  command, 
started  on  May  16,  1919,  reached  the  Azores  May  18,  and  with  numerous  de- 
lays, finally  landed  at  Plymouth,  England,  May  31. 

closely  than  years  of  peace  could  have  accomplished.  Our  de- 
termined stand  for  the  right  of  smaller  nations  to  govern  them- 
selves had  its  effect  on  Latin-America.  As  a  result,  much  of  the 
old  distrust  and  jealousy  toward  the  United  States  disappeared. 
Of  the  twenty  independent  republics  in  Latin- America,  thirteen 
sided  with  the  United  States  and  the  Allies,  either  by  severing 
diplomatic  relations  with  Germany,  or  by  declaring  war.  The 
others  remained  officially  neutral,  but  with  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  Mexico,  none  of  them  could  be  regarded  as  unfriendly. 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND  ITS  MEANING      635 

Before  the  war,  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  trade  that  should 
have  been  carried  on  between  the  two  Americas  went  to  Europe. 
In  1914  our  trade  with  Latin-America  was  $750,000,000; 
three  years  later  it  was  $1,750,000,000,  an  increase  of  one  bil- 
lion dollars.  This  gain  was  made  with  limited  shipping  facili- 
ties, and  with  the  imperious  demand  for  supplies  in  Europe; 
so  that  with  peace  restored,  the  trade  with  our  southern  neigh- 
bors should  continue  to  grow.  This  means  that  the  people  of 
the  United  States  must  pay  more  attention  to  Latin-America, 
to  the  study  of  its  language,  customs,  and  institutions.  We 
should  continue  and  extend  our  credit  and  banking  institutions 
in  South  America,  expand  our  passenger  and  freight  facilities, 
and  at  all  times  cultivate  the  friendship  and  good  will  of  our 
neighbors. 

A  Clearer  Conception  of  Our  National  Problems.  The  war 
has  shown  us  some  of  our  national  problems  in  a  new,  clear 
light.  Americanization  of  a  host  of  aliens  within  our  borders, 
restriction  of  immigration,  lessening  of  unemployment,  intelli- 
gent dealing  with  discontent  which  may  turn  to  something 
worse,  stern  repression  of  anarchists  and  others  seeking  to 
undermine  our  institutions  —  these  are  some  of  the  problems 
of  the  new  reconstruction  period.  Fortunately,  our  task  of 
reconstruction  does  not  involve  the  rebuilding  of  immense 
devastated  areas,  as  in  France  and  Belgium.  But  it  does 
mean  the  problem  of  restoring  more  than  two  million  men  to 
industrial  life,  so  that  they  shall  be  assured  of  productive 
employment  under  conditions  fair  both  to  employer  and  em- 
ployee. It  means,  too,  the  reeducating,  at  national  expense, 
of  those  who  have  received  some  injury  that  unfits  them  for 
their  previous  occupation. 

Our  Country's  Position  and  Responsibilities.  The  close  of 
the  war  brought  to  us  the  need  of  redistributing  our  labor 
supply,  and  of  changing  our  productive  capacity  back  to  peace 
needs.  Our  country  emerges  from  the  great  struggle  stronger 
in  productive  power  than  ever  before,  the  chief  reservoir  both 
of  the  world's  wealth  and  of  the  world's  raw  materials.  Before 
the  war,  the  United  States  owed  Europe  about  $5,000,000,000, 


636       THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

part  of  which  represented  European  capital  invested  in  American 
securities.  To-day  we  are  a  creditor  nation ;  Europe  owes  us 
$11,000,000,000,  and  the  available  gold  supply  of  the  world 
is  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Our  annual  exports  have  in- 
creased from  $2,500,000,000  in  1913,  to  $6,500,000,000  in  1918 ; 
and  our  imports  have  nearly  doubled  in  the  same  period.  More- 
over, this  enormous  foreign  trade  will  soon  be  carried  chiefly 
in  American  vessels.  Germany  ordered  our  merchant  ships 
off  the  seas ;  but  the  outcome  of  her  insolent  order  has  been 
to  restore  the  American  flag  to  its  rightful  place  on  the  ocean. 
With  the  completion  of  a  program  that  calls  for  the  construc- 
tion of  15,000,000  tons  of  shipping,  the  United  States  will 
again  become  one  of  the  great  carrying  nations  of  the  world. 

The  possession  of  these  vast  resources  means  that  our  eco- 
nomic possibilities  are  almost  unlimited.  Not  only  the  peace, 
but  also  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of  the  world,  are  to-day 
chiefly  in  the  keeping  of  the  United  States  and  the  British  Em- 
pire. Together  we  have  the  ownership  and  responsibility  for 
most  of  the  vital  necessities  of  the  modern  world,  —  wheat, 
meat,  cotton,  coal,  iron,  and  copper.  Not  only  for  its  material 
needs,  but  for  moral  leadership  as  well,  war-worn  Europe  is 
turning  to  the  United  States.  It  is  for  us  to  meet  our  new  re- 
sponsibilities in  such  a  way  as  to  realize  the  greatest  helpfulness 
to  a  world  which  is  facing  a  long  and  difficult  period  of  recon- 
struction. 

REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
vol.  LXXXIV,  no.  173 :   International  Reconstruction. 

Beck,  James  M.,  The  Evidence  in  the  Case. 

Beer,  G.  L.,  The  English-Speaking  Peoples. 

Cheradame,  Andre,  The  Pan-German  Plot  Unmasked. 

Gibson,  Hugh,  A  Journal  From  Our  Legation  in  Belgium. 

Lauzanne,  Stephane,  Fighting  France. 

Lawrence,  T.  J.,  The  Society  of  Nations;  Its  Past,  Present  and  Possible 
Future. 

Lloyd-George,  David,  The  Great  Crusade: 


DEMOCRACY'S  VICTORY  AND   ITS  MEANING      637 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  The  Great  Adventure. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Russia  in  Upheaval. 

Scherer,  James  A.  B.,  The  Nation  at  War. 

Scott,  James  Brown,  A  Survey  of  International  Relations  Between 

the  United  States  and  Germany,  August  1,  191j^-April  6,  1917. 
Stoddard,  Lothrop,  and  Frank,  Glenn,  Stakes  of  the  War. 
Strother,  French,  Fighting  Germany's  Spies. 

REFERENCES  FOR  PUPILS 

Benezet,  L.  P.,  The  Story  of  the  Map  of  Europe. 

Dawson,  Coningsby,  Carry  On. 

Egan,  Eleanor  Franklin,  The  War  in  the  Cradle  of  the  World. 

Hankey,  Donald,  A  Student  in  Arms. 

Hough,  Emerson,  The  Web. 

Lauder,  Harry,  A  Minstrel  in  France. 

O'Brien,  Patrick,  Outwitting  the  Hun. 

Paine,  Ralph  D.,  The  Fighting  Fleets. 


APPENDIX 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

(Agreed  to,  July  4,  1776) 

In  Congress,  July  4,  1776 

the  unanimous  declaration  of  the  thirteen  united  states  of 

AMERICA 

SflSHfjnt  in  the  Course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,'  and  to  assume  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that 
they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation.  — 
We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created  equal, 
that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  Rights, 
that  among  these  are  Life,  Liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  Happiness.  —  That 
to  secure  these  rights,  Governments  are  instituted  among  Men,  deriving 
their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed.  —  That  whenever 
any  Form  of  Government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  Right 
of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new  Government, 
laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such 
form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  Safety  and  Happiness. 
Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  Governments  long  established  should 
not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes ;  and  accordingly  all  experi- 
ence hath  shewn,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils 
are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which 
they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations, 
pursuing  invariably  the  same  Object  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them 
under  absolute  Despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off 
such  Government,  and  to  provide  new  Guards  for  their  future  security. 
—  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  Colonies ;  and  such  is 
now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  Systems 
of  Government.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a 
history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object 
the  establishment  of  an  absolute  Tyranny  over  these  States.     To  prove 


li  DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE 

this,  let  Facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world.  —  He  has  refused  his 
Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

—  He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of  immediate  and  press- 
ing importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  Assent  should 
be  obtained ;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend 
to  them.  —  He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommodation  of 
large  districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
Representation  in  the  Legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to  them  and  formi- 
dable to  tyrants  only.  —  He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places 
unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public 
Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his 
measures.  —  He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly,  for  op- 
posing with  manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people.  —  He 
has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected ;  whereby  the  Legislative  powers,  incapable  of  Annihilation,  have 
returned  to  the  People  at  large  for  their  exercises ;  the  State  remaining  in 
the  mean  time  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without,  and 
convulsions  within.  —  He  has  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  population 
of  these  States ;  for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  Laws  for  Naturalization 
of  Foreigners ;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migrations  hither, 
and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  Appropriations  of  Lands.  —  He  has  ob- 
structed the  Administration  of  Justice,  by  refusing  his  Assent  to  Laws  for 
establishing  Judiciary  powers.  —  He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his 
Will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment 
of  their  salaries.  —  He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent 
hither  swarms  of  Officers  to  harrass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

—  He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  Standing  Armies  without  the 
Consent  of  our  legislatures.  —  He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military 
independent  of  and  superior  to  the  Civil  power.  —  He  has  combined  with 
others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitution,  and 
unacknowledged  by  our  laws ;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  pretended 
Legislation  :  —  For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  :  — 
For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  from  punishment  for  any  Murders 
which  they  should  commit  on  the  Inhabitants  of  these  States :  —  For 
cutting  off  our  Trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world :  —  For  imposing  Taxes 
on  us  without  our  Consent :  —  For  depriving  us  in  many  cases,  of  the  bene- 
fits of  Trial  by  Jury  :  —  For  transporting  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for 
pretended  offences :  —  For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws 
in  a  neighboring  Province,  establishing  therein  an  Arbitrary  govern- 
ment, and  enlarging  its  Boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE        Hi 

and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  Colo- 
nies :  —  For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  Laws, 
and  altering  fundamentally  the  Forms  of  our  Governments :  —  For  sus- 
pending our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with 
power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever.  —  He  has  abdicated  Gov- 
ernment here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  Protection  and  waging  War  against 
us.  —  He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt  our  towns, 
and  destroyed  the  Lives  of  our  people.  —  He  is  at  this  time  transporting 
large  Armies  of  foreign  Mercenaries  to  compleat  the  works  of  death,  deso- 
lation and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of  Cruelty  &  perfidy 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the 
Head  of  a  civilized  nation.  —  He  has  constrained  our  fellow  Citizens  taken 
Captive  on  the  high  Seas  to  bear  Arms  against  their  Country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  Brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their 
Hands.  —  He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has 
endeavoured  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the  merciless 
Indian  Savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare,  is  an  undistinguished  de- 
struction of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions.  In  every  stage  of  these  Oppres- 
sions We  have  Petitioned  for  Redress  in  the  most  humble  terms :  Our  re- 
peated Petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  Prince, 
whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a  Tyrant,  is 
unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people.  Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  at- 
tentions to  our  British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them  from  time  to 
time  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdic- 
tion over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emi- 
gration and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  common 
kindred  to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  inter- 
rupt our  connections  and  correspondence.  They  too  have  been  deaf  to 
the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce 
in  the  necessity,  which  denounces  our  Separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we 
hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends.  — 

Wit,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  SSntteo  states  of  America, 
in  General  Congress,  Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of 
the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  Name,  and  by 
Authority  of  the  good  People  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and 
declare,  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  Right  ought  to  be,  JFree 
ano  CnorpenDcnt  States ;  that  they  are  Absolved  from  all  Allegiance  to  the 
British  Crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the 
State  of  Great  Britain,  is  and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved ,-   and  that  as 


IV 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


Free  and  Independent  States,  they  have  full  Power  to  levy  War,  conclude 
Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  Acts 
and  Things  which  Independent  States  may  of  right  do.  —  And  for  the  sup- 
port of  this  Declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  divine 
Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes  and 
our  sacred  Honor. 

JOHN   HANCOCK. 


[Signatures  of  representatives  of  the  thirteen  States,  affixed  under  date 
of  August  2,  1776.] 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
josiah  bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY. 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 
Stephen  Hopkins, 
Wtilliam  Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

NEW  YORK. 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abram  Clark. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

C/Esar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone, 
Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jun., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 


THE    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  Thomas  Lynch,  Jun., 

William  Hooper,  Arthur  Middleton. 


Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 


GEORGIA. 

Button  Gwinnett, 
SOUTH   CAROLINA.  Lyman  Hall, 

Edward  Rutledge,  George  Walton. 

Thomas  Heyward,  Jun., 


THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

Preamble 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to_form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  com- 
mon defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the.  blessings  of 
liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordam  and  establish  this  consti- 
tution for  the  United  States  of  America. 

Article  I.    Legislative  Department 

Section  I.     Congress  in  General 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

Section  II.     House  of  Representatives 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors  in 
each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole 
number  of  the  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term 


VI         THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons. 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent 
term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number 
of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative ;  and  until  such  enumeration 
shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose 
three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one, 
Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Dela- 
ware one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina 
five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.     Senate 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes. 
The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration 
of  the  second  year ;  and  of  the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
fourth  year,  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so 
that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if  vacancies  hap- 
pen by  resignation  or  otherwise  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any 
State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President  pro 
tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When 
pitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.     When  the 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     vii 

President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside : 
and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds 
of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of 
honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States ;  but  the  party  convicted 
shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment, 
and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.     Both  Houses 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators  and 
Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature  thereof ; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law 
appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.     The  Houses  Separately 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifi- 
cations of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to 
day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members, 
in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to 
time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  re- 
quire secrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the 
journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place 
than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.     Privileges  and  Disabilities  of  Members 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the 


viil     THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach 
of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ; 
and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in 
any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased  during  such  time ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance 
in  office. 

Section  VII.     Mode  of  Passing  Laws 

1 .  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  on  other 
bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States ;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return 
it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal  and  proceed  to  recon- 
sider it.  If  after  such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree 
to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other 
house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two 
thirds  of  that  house  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes 
of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of 
each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to 
him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall 
not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him, 
or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  pre- 
scribed in  the  case  of  a  bill. 


THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES        IX 


Section  VIII.     Powers  granted  to  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  : 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  through- 
out the  United  States ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States ; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that 
use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the 
officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government 


X         THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased 
by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be, 
for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful 
buildings;' and    • 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department 
or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX.     Powers  denied  to  the  United  States 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require 
it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  rev- 
enue to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall  vessels  bound 
to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time 
to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title, 
of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Section  X.     Powers  denied  to  the  States 

1.   No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;    coin  money ;    emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts ;  pass 
any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of       y 
contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 


THE   CONSTITUTION  OP  THE  UNITED   STATES        XI 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary 
for  executing  its  inspection  laws ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  im- 
posts, laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the- use  of  the 
treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the 
revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  duty 
of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agree- 
ment or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in 
war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit 
of  delay. 

Article  II.    Executive  Department 
Sectifinl.     President  and  Vice  President 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years, 
and  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected 
as  follows : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress ; 
but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or 
profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted 
for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  cer- 
tify, and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  major- 
ity of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than 
one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them 
for  President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest 
on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representa- 
tion from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  con- 


Xll       THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

sist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the 
choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice  President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two 
or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot 
the  Vice  President.] * 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors  and  the 
day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  four- 
teen years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office, 
the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Congress  may  by 
law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both 
of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act 
as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly  until  the  disability  be 
removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com- 
pensation, which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the 
period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States  or  any 
of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the  follow- 
ing oath  or  affirmation  : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability  preserve, 
protect,  and  defend  the  constitution  of  the  United  States." 

Section  II.     Powers  of  the  President 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  when  called 
into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments, 
upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he 

1  This  clause  of  the  constitution  has  been  superseded  by  the  twelfth  amend- 
ment. 


THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES      xiii 

shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the 
United  States,  except  in  rases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present  con- 
cur; and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall 
be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment 
of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  hap- 
pen during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall 
expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.     Duties  of  the  President 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to 
such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other 
public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed, 
and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.     Impeachment 

The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction  of  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

Article  III.    Judicial  Department 

Section  I.     United  States  Courts 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  courts, 
shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times, 
receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  in  office. 


XIV     THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 

Section  II.     Jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Courts 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising 
under  this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  am- 
bassadors, other  public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States ;  between  a 
State  and  citizens  of  another  State;  between  citizens  of  different  States; 
between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States, 
citizens,  or  subjects.1 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall 
have  been  committed  ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial 
shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.     Treason 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason, 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV.  —  The  States  and  the  Federal  Government 

Section  I.     State  Records 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

1  This  clause  has  been  amended.     See  Amendments,  Article  xi, 


THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES      XV 

Section  II.     Privileges  of  Citizens,  etc. 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  im- 
munities of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up 
to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation 
therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up 
on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due.1 

Section  III.     New  States  and  Territories 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union;  but 
no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States  or 
parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  con- 
cerned as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules 
and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the 
United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  IV.     Guarantees  to  the  States 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  republi- 
can form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion, 
and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  legis- 
lature cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

Article  V.     Power  of  Amendment 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  neces- 
sary, shall  propose  amendments  to  this  constitution,  or,  on  the  application 
of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  conven- 
tion for  proposing  amendments,  which  in  either  case  shall  be  valid  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  pro- 
1  This  clause  has  been  nullified  by  Amendment  xiii,  which  abolishes  slavery. 


xvi      THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

posed  by  the  Congress,  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner 
affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article; 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suf- 
frage in  the  Senate. 


Article  VI.    Public  Debt,  Supremacy  of  the  Constitution,  Oath 
of  Office,  Religious  Test 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under 
this  constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the 
constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers  both 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or 
affirmation  to  support  this  constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States. 


Article  VII.     Ratification  of  the  Constitution 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 
same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present, 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thou- 
sand seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Independence  of 
the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof,  we 
have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

George  Washington,  President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 
New  Hampshire  —  John  Langdon,  Nicholas  Gilman. 
Massachusetts  —  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King. 
Connecticut  —  William  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sherman. 
New  York  —  Alexander  Hamilton. 


AMENDMENTS  xvii 

New    Jersey  —  William  Livingston,  David  Brearley,  William  Paterson, 

Jonathan  Dayton. 
Pennsylvania  —  Benjamin  Franklin,   Thomas  Mifflin,   Robert  Morris, 

George  Clymer,   Thomas  Fitzsimons,  Jared  Ingersoll,  James  Wilson, 

Gouverneur  Morris. 
Delaware  —  George    Read,    Gunning    Bedford,    Jr.,    John    Dickinson, 

Richard  Bassett,  Jacob  Broom. 
Maryland  —  James  McHenry,   Daniel  of  St.   Thomas  Jenifer,   Daniel 

Carroll. 
Virginia  —  John  Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr. 
North   Carolina  —  William    Blount,    Richard    Dobbs   Spaight,    Hugh 

Williamson. 
South  Carolina  —  John  Rutledge,  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney,  Charles 

Pinckney,  Pierce  Butler. 
Georgia  —  William  Few,  Abraham  Baldwin. 

Attest :  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 

AMENDMENTS  1 
Article  I 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech 
or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

Article  II 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

Article  IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  shall  not  be  violated,  and 
no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 

1  The  first  ten  amendments  were  proposed  by  Congress,  September  25,  1789, 
and  declared  in  force  December  15,  1791. 


XVlli      THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the 
persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Article  V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases 
arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service 
in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same 
offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled 
in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property 
be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

Article  VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accu- 
sation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have  compul- 
sory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance 
of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

Article  VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

Article  VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

Article  X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively  or 
to  the  people. 


AMENDMENTS  XIX 

Article  XI l 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any 
foreign  state. 

Article  XII 2 

1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certifi- 
cates and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not 
exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of 
Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representa- 
tion from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall 
consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of  choice 
shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice  President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or 
other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice  President  shall 
be  the  Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number 
of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two 
highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice  President ;  a 
quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of 
Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  March  5,  1794,  and  declared  in  force  January  8,  1798. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  December  12,  1803,  and  declared  in  force  September 
25,  1804. 


XX      THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 

Article  XIII » 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist 
within  the  United  States  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legis- 
lation. 

Article  XIV2 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State 
wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal 
protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in 
each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at 
any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  of 
the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial 
officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to 
any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  parti- 
cipation in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein 
shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens 
shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in 
such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or  elec- 
tor of  President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken 
an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or 
as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer 
of  any  State,  to  support  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  February  1,  1865,  and  declared  in  force  December  18, 
1865. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  June  16,  1866,  and  declared  in  force  July  28,  1868. 


AMENDMENTS  xxi 

engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  com- 
fort to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds 
of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  ser- 
vices in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or 
obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such 
debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 

Article  XV1 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color, 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

Article  XVI 2 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes,  from 
whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several  States, 
and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

Article  XVII 3 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  legislatures. 

2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies  :  Provided,  that  the  legislature  of  any  State  may  em- 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  February  26,  1869,  and  declared  in  force  March  30, 
1870. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  July  12,  1909,  and  declared  in  force  February  25, 
1913. 

3  Proposed  by  Congress  June  12,  1912,  and  declared  in  force  April  8,  1913. 


xxii     THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

power  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the  Con- 
stitution. 

Article  XVIII l 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manufacture, 
sale  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the  importation 
thereof  into  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all 
territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  beverage  purposes  is  hereby 
prohibited. 

2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent  power  to 
enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been  ratified  as 
an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States 
as  provided  in  the  Constitution  within  seven  years  from  the  date  of  sub- 
mission hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 

Article  XIX2 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of 
sex. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

1  Passed  the  Senate  July  31,  1917,  passed  the  House  December  17,  1917. 

2  Now  before  the  States  for  ratification. 


THE   STATES  OP  THE   UNION 


XXlll 


ORDER  AND  DATE  OF  ADMISSION  INTO  UNION,  AREA,  POPULATION,  AND 
ELECTORAL  VOTE 


Order 

Population 

Admitted 

Admitted 
into  Union 

Area 

Elec- 

State 

under 

Square 

Constitu- 

MlLBS 

VOTE 

tion 

1900 

1910 

Alabama       .     .     . 

22 

1819 

51,998 

1,828,697 

2,138,093 

12 

Arizona    .      . 

48 

1912 

113,956 

122,931 

204,354 

3 

Arkansas 

25 

1836 

53,335 

1,311,564 

1,574,449 

9 

California 

31 

1850 

158,297 

1,485,053 

2,377,549 

13 

Colorado 

38 

1875 

103,948 

539,700 

799,024 

6 

Connecticut 

5 

1788 

4,965 

908,420 

1,114,750 

7 

Delaware 

1 

1787 

2,370 

184,735 

202,322 

3 

Florida     .     . 

27 

1845 

58,666 

528,542 

752,619 

6 

Georgia    .     . 

4 

1788 

59,265 

2,216,331 

2,609,121 

14 

Idaho        .     . 

43 

1890 

83,888 

161,772 

325,594 

4 

Illinois      .     . 

21 

1818 

56,665 

4,821,550 

5,638,591 

29 

Indiana    . 

19 

1816 

36,354 

2,516,462 

2,700,876 

15 

Iowa    . 

29 

1846 

56,147 

2,231,853 

2,224,771 

13 

Kansas     .     . 

34 

1861 

82,158 

1,470,495 

1,690,949 

10 

Kentucky      . 

15 

1791 

40,598 

2,147,174 

2,289,905 

13 

Louisiana 

18 

1812 

48,506 

1,381,625 

1,656,388 

10 

Maine       .     . 

23 

1820 

33,040 

694,466 

742,371 

6 

Maryland      . 

7 

1788 

12,327 

1,188,044 

1,295,346 

8 

Massachusetts 

6 

1788 

8,266 

2,805,346 

3,366,416 

18 

Michigan 

26 

1837 

57,980 

2,420,982 

2,810,173 

15 

Minnesota    . 

32 

1858 

84,682 

1,751,394 

2,075,708 

12 

Mississippi    . 

20 

1817 

46,865 

1,551,270 

1,797,114 

10 

Missouri  .     . 

24 

1821 

69,420 

3,106,665 

3,293,335 

18 

Montana 

41 

1889 

146,997 

243,329 

376,053 

4 

Nebraska 

37 

1867 

77,520 

1,066,300 

1,192,214 

8 

Nevada    .     . 

36 

1864 

110,690 

42,335 

81,875 

3 

New  Hampshir 

9 

1788 

9,341 

411,588 

430,572 

4 

New  Jersey  . 

3 

1787 

t      8,224 

1,883,669 

2,537,167 

14 

New  Mexico 

47 

1912 

122,634 

195,310 

327,301 

3 

New  York     . 

11 

1788 

49,204 

7,268,894 

9,113,614 

45 

North  Carolina 

12 

1789 

52,426 

1,893,810 

2,206,287 

12 

North  Dakota 

39 

1889 

70,837 

319,146 

577,056 

5 

Ohio    .     .     . 

17 

1802 

41,040 

4,157,545 

4,767,121 

24 

Oklahoma 

46 

1907 

70,057 

790,391 

1,657,155 

10 

Oregon 

33 

1859 

96,699 

413,536 

672,765 

5 

Pennsylvania 

2 

1787 

45,126 

6,302,115 

7,665,111 

38 

Rhode  Island 

13 

1790 

1,248 

428,556 

542,610 

5 

South  Carolina 

8 

1788 

30,989 

1,340,316 

1,515,400 

9 

South  Dakota 

40 

1889 

77,615 

401,570 

583,888 

5 

Tenessee  .     . 

16 

1796 

42,022 

2,020,616 

2,184,789 

12 

Texas  .     .     . 

28 

1845 

265,896 

3,048,710 

3,896,542 

20 

Utah   .     .     . 

45 

1894 

84,990 

276,749 

373,351 

4 

Vermont  . 

14 

1791 

V      9,564 

343,641 

355,956 

4 

Virginia   . 

10 

1788 

42,627 

1,854,184 

2,061,612 

12 

Washington 

42 

1889 

69,127 

518,103 

1,141,990 

7 

West  Virginia 

35 

1863 

24,170 

958,800 

1,221,119 

8 

Wisconsin 

30 

1848 

56,066 

2,069,042 

2,333,860 

13 

Wyoming 

44 

1S90 

97.91  ! 

92,531 

145,965 

3 

Total     . 

3,026,719 

75,715,857 

91,641,197 

531 

XXIV 


APPENDIX 


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INDEX 

(Including  a  pronouncing  vocabulary  for  the  more  unfamiliar  foreign  names, 
especially  those  in  relation  to  the  World  War.) 


4. 


\n 


Abolition,  movement  for,  347-348 ; 
right  of  petition,  348.  See  Emanci- 
pation. 

Acadia,  33,  39,  59,  111;  removal  of 
the  Acadians,  119. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  minister  to 
Great  Britain,  420,  427,  4S2. 

Adams,  John,  revolutionary  leader, 
160,  168,  173  ;  first  Vice-President, 
230-231 ;  President,  249-254. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  308,  310,  313; 
President,  322-324;  upholds  right 
of  petition,  348. 

Adams,  Samuel,  revolutionary  leader, 
153,  154,  158,  160,  170,  174. 

Africa,  1,  7,  8,  27. 

Agassiz,  Louis,  naturalist,  345. 

Agriculture,  in  the  colonies,  129-130; 
agricultural  colleges,  343 ;  progress 
in,  before  Civil  War,  405;  in  the 
West,  491  ;  Commissioner  of,  491  ; 
in  the  South,  497-498  ;  recent  prog- 
ress in,  554-555. 

Aguinaldo  (a-ge-nal'do),  Filipino 
leader,  533. 

Aircraft,  invention  of,  560 ;  aircraft 
production  in  World  War,  583-584. 

Aisne  (an),  601. 

Alabama,  22,  294,  296,  303,  306,  399, 
406. 

Alabama  Claims,  arbitration  of,  482. 

Alamo  (a'la-mo),  the,  353-354. 

Alaska,  discovery  of,  109  ;  purchased, 
481 ;  railway  in,  539 ;  discovery  of 
gold  in,  542 ;  boundary  question 
settled,  543-544. 

Albany,  40,  117,  182,  318,  319. 

Albany  Congress,  117. 

Albany  Plan  of  Union,  117. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  568. 

Algiers,  preys  on  American  commerce, 
262-263. 

Algonquin  Indians,  34-35,  48. 


Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  251-252. 

Allegheny  Mountains,  43-45. 

Allen,  Ethan,  captures  Ticonderoga, 
169. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  author,  568. 

Allenby,  General,  611. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  569,  571. 

Amendments,  constitutional,  how 
made,  227 ;  Twelfth  amendment, 
255 ;  Thirteenth,  462  ;  Fourteenth, 
462,468,469;  Fifteenth,  472  ;  Six- 
teenth, 549  ;  Seventeenth,  549  ; 
Eighteenth,  549 ;  proposed  Nine- 
teenth, 549. 

America,  origin  of  name,  17 ;  na- 
tive inhabitants,  13.  See  North 
America,  South  America. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  505. 

Americas  Vespucius.  See  Vespucius, 
Americus. 

Amiens,  drive  toward,  599. 

Anarchists,  in  Chicago,  50S. 

Anderson,  Maj.  Robert,  surrenders 
Fort  Sumter,  419. 

Andre  (an'dra),  Maj.  John,  British 
spy,  196. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  governor  of  New 
England,  93-94,  102. 

Annapolis  Convention,  219. 

Antietam  (an-te'tam),  battle  of,  445. 

Appalachian  Mountains,  43-45. 

Appomattox  Court  House,  Lee  surren- 
ders at,  440,  453-454. 

Arbitration,  of  Alabama  claims,  482  ; 
in  South  American  affairs,  483-484  ; 
of  Behring  Sea  dispute,  485 ;  of 
Newfoundland  fisheries  question, 
543  ;  of  Alaskan  boundary,  543-544  ; 
The  Hague  Court,  543  ;  arbitration 
of  labor  disputes,  509,  542-543. 

Argonne-Meuse  (merz)  offensive,  609. 

Arizona,  48,  367,  496,  549. 

Arkansas,  420,  435. 


XXV 


XXVI 


INDEX 


Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  288. 

Armada    (ar-ma'da) ,    Spanish,    defeat 

of,  28. 
Armament,    production    of,    in    World 

War,  581-584. 
Armistice,  terms  of,  612. 
Army,  the  Revolutionary,  1G8  ;   in  War 

of  1812,  271-274,  275,  276,  279-281  ; 

in  Mexican  War,  362-368;    in  Civil 

War,  420,  441,  458;    in  World  War, 

578-580. 
Arnold,  Gen.  Benedict,  attacks  Quebec, 

169,  200  ;    treason  of,  195-196. 
Arthur,  Chester  A.,  becomes  President, 

512,  513. 
Articles   of   Confederation.     See   Con- 
federation, Articles  of. 
Asia,  1,  4-6,  17. 

Assembly,  the  colonial,  62,  63,  129. 
Assumption  of  state  debts,  236-237. 
Astoria,  established,  357. 
Asylums,  insane,  341  ;   deaf  and  dumb, 

342. 
Atlanta,  437-440,  461,  499. 
Atlantic  Ocean,  1,  2. 
Audubon,     John     James,     naturalist, 

345. 
Australian     ballot,     adoption     of,     in 

United  States,  546. 
Austria,  4,  573. 
Aztecs,  the,  21-22,  46. 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  66. 

Bahama  Islands,  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus, 12  ;  occupied  by  the  English, 
109. 

Baker,  Newton  D.,  600. 

Balboa  (bal-bo'a),  discovers  Pacific 
Ocean,  17. 

Ballot  reform,  546. 

Baltimore,  72,  177,  279-280,  320-321, 
355,  395,  403,  408,  445,  447. 

Baltimore,  Lord.     See  Calvert. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  321. 

Bancroft,  George,  historian,  346. 

Banks,  First  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
237,  239 ;  Jackson's  attack  on  the 
Second     Bank,     333-334;  State 

banks,  334-336;  National  Banking 
Act  of  1863,  459-460;  Federal  Re- 
serve Act,  523. 

Baptists,  139. 

Barbados  (bar-ba'doz),  occupied  by 
the  English,  72,  109. 

Barbary  pirates,  war  with,  262-263. 


Barre,  Isaac,  sides  with  colonists,  144, 

151. 
Bates,  Edward,  418. 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  140. 
Beauregard,  Gen.  P.  C.  T.,  Confeder- 
ate commander,  423,  432. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  346. 
Behring    Sea,    arbitration    of    fisheries 

dispute,  485. 
Belgium,  571,  573. 
Bell,  Alexander,  inventor,  558. 
Bell,  John,  presidential  candidate,  398. 
Belleau  Wood,  595,  603. 
Bellecourt  (Belcoor'),  610. 
Bennington,  battle  of,  181. 
Berkeley,  Sir  John,  proprietor  of  New 

Jersey,  102-103. 
Berkeley,    Sir    William,    governor    of 

Virginia,  66,  141. 
Bernstorff ,  Count  von,  576. 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  499. 
Birney,  James  G.,  348. 
Bismarck,  569. 
Bladensburg,  battle  of,  279. 
Blaine,  James  G.,  516. 
Blair,  Francis  P.,  429. 
Blair,  Montgomery,  418. 
Blockade,  during  the  Napoleonic  wars, 

264-266;    in    the    Civil    War,    425- 

426;  during   the   World   War,   574- 

575. 
Bolsheviki,  the,  596,  628-630. 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon.    See  Napoleon  I. 
Bond  issues,   in  Civil   War,   459 ;      in 

World  War,  588. 
Bon    Homme    Richard    (bo-nom'    re- 

shar'),  192-193. 
Bony  (b5ne'),  610. 
Bonne,  Daniel,  explores  Kentucky,  189, 

216. 
Booth,  John  Wilkes,  assassin,  454. 
Boston,  86,  94,  126,  154,  155,  157,  158, 

160,    163,    164,    170,    175,   312,   321, 

342,  408,  563. 
Boston  News  Letter,  140. 
Bouresches  (bdoresh/),  603. 
Boxer  Rebellion,  534. 
Braddock,    Gen.    Edward,    defeat    of, 

117-119. 
Bragg,     Gen.     Braxton,     Confederate 

commander,  433,  435,  436. 
Brandy  wine,  battle  of  the,  184-185. 
Breckenridge,  John  C,  395. 
Brest-Litovsk,  treaty  of,  596. 
British  East  India  Company,  57. 


INDEX 


XXVll 


Brown,  John,  raid  in  Kansas,  387 ; 
seizes  Harper's  Ferry,  394  396. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  Democratic  leader, 
522,  536. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  author,  344. 

Buchanan,  James,  elected  President, 
387,  390;  favors  slave  constitution 
for  Kansas,  387 ;  attitude  toward 
secession,  399-400. 

Buell,  Gen.  Don  Carlos,  Union  com- 
mander, 431,  432,  433. 

Buena  Vista,  battle  of,  364. 

Buffalo,  276,  317,  318,  319,  321,  540, 
558. 

Bulgaria,  573. 

Bull  Run,  first  battle  of,  424-425; 
second  battle  of,  444. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  165-167;  fif- 
tieth anniversary  of,  312. 

Burgesses,  House  of,  in  Virginia,  62- 
63,  66 ;  protests  against  stamp  tax, 
149-150. 

Burgoyne,  Gen.  John,  surrenders  to 
Americans,  180-182. 

Burke,  Edmund,  sides  with  colonists, 
144,  152,  162. 

Burnside,  Gen.  Ambrose  E.,  Union 
commander,  446,  460. 

Burr,  Aaron,  Vice-President,  254-255 ; 
conspiracy  of,  262. 

Butler,  Gen.  Benjamin  F.,  Union  com- 
mander, 434. 

Cabinet,  creation  of,  226 ;  Washing- 
ton's, 235 ;   Lincoln's,  417-418. 

Cable,  George  W.,  author,  568. 

Cabot,  John,  explores  coast  of  North 
America,  15,  32. 

Calhoun,  John  C,  supports  war  against 
Great  Britain,  271 ;  Vice-President, 
329  ;  opposes  tariff  of  abominations, 
329-330  ;  champion  of  slavery,  355  ; 
last  speech,  376. 

California,  48,  356-357,  362,  363, 
364,  365,  366,  367,  368,  372,  373- 
374,  375,  376,  403,  407,  410,  488, 
549. 

Calvert,  Cecil,  second  Lord  Baltimore, 
founds  Maryland,  69. 

Calvert,  George,  Lord  Baltimore,  69. 

Cambrai  (kambra/),  610. 

Cambridge  (Mass.),  87,  168. 

Camden,  battle  of,  199. 

Camden,  Lord,  sides  with  colonists, 
144,  161-162. 


Canada,  first  settlements  in,  32-36; 
conquest  of,  by  the  British,  111-124  ; 
invasion  of,  in  War  of  1812,  273- 
276 ;  agreement  for  naval  disarma- 
ment with,  285-286 ;  boundary 
disputes  with,  352-353,  543-544 ; 
formation  of  the  Dominion,  525 ; 
fisheries  question,  543. 

Canal,  the  Erie,  318-319  ;  other  canals, 
319-320;    the  Isthmian,  536-538. 

Canning,  George,  308. 

Capital,  combinations  of,  501-505; 
employers'  associations,  506 ;  wel- 
fare work  of  employers,  506-507. 

Capital,  national,  location  of,  237,  256  ; 
captured  by  British,  280-281.  See 
Washington,  city  of. 

Caporetto  (kaporet'to),  612. 

Carpetbaggers,  the,  469 ;  carpetbag 
governments,  470-472. 

Carroll,  Charles,  321. 

Carteret,  Philip,  first  governor  of 
New  Jersey,  102. 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  proprietor  of 
New  Jersey,  102. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  discovers  St.  Law- 
rence River,  32-33. 

Cartwright,  Dr.  Edward,  288. 

Cass,  Lewis,  presidential  candidate,  37 1 . 

Cathay.     See  China. 

Catholics,  139. 

Cavaliers,  in  Virginia,  64. 

Centennial  Exposition,  558. 

Cervera,  Admiral  Pascual,  Spanish 
commander,  529-530. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  founds  Quebec, 
33 ;  explorations,  34-36 ;  attacks 
Iroquois  Indians,  35. 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  446-447. 

Channel  ports,  drive  toward,  600. 

Charles  I,  King  of  England,  64,  85,  88. 

Charles  II,  King  of  England,  65,  71, 
93,  104,  105. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  72,  74,  155-157, 
197-198,  200,  247,  395. 

Charter  colonies.  See  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony. 

Charters  granted,  to  London  and 
Plymouth  Companies,  58-59 ;  to 
Lord  Baltimore,  69-71 ;  to  Carolina 
proprietors,  72 ;  to  Massachusetts 
Bay  Company,  85-86;  to  New 
Jersey  proprietors,  102  ;  to  William 
Penn,  105. 


XXV111 


INDEX 


Chase,  Salmon  P.,  377,  385-386,  417. 

Chatham,  Lord.     See  Pitt,  William. 

Chateau-Thierry  (Shato'  Tie'ry),  595. 

Chattanooga  (Tenn.),  436. 

Chesapeake,  fired  on  by  the  Leopard, 
265. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  15,  29,  60,  69,  184, 
201-203,  279. 

Chicago,  395,  397,  508,  509,  540,  563. 

Chickamauga,  battle  of,  435-436. 

Chile,  dispute  with  United  States,  483, 
484. 

China,  early  trade  with,  4-6,  248 ; 
Marco  Polo  in,  6 ;  first  treaty  with 
United  States,  367 ;  Boxer  uprising 
in,  534  ;  open-door  policy  in,  534  ; 
Japan's  rights  in,  545. 

Chinese,  exclusion  of,  514. 

Chippewa,  battle  of,  277. 

Choate,  Rufus,  381. 

Church  of  England,  origin,  78-79. 

Churches.     See  Religion. 

Cincinnati,  215,  317,  319,  378,  408, 
433. 

Cities,  colonial,  126 ;  recent  growth, 
562;  problems  of,  562,  563;  com- 
mission government  in,  564 ;  city 
manager  plan,  564. 

Civil  Rights  Act  of  1866,  467-468. 

Civil  service  reform,  512-513. 

Civil  War,  415-463. 

Claiborne,  William,  71. 

Clark,  Gen.  George  Rogers,  conquers 
Northwest,  190-191. 

Clark,  William.  See  Lewis  and  Clark 
expedition. 

Clay,  Henry,  Speaker  of  House,  270, 
271 ;  proposes  Compromise  Tariff, 
333 ;  presidential  candidate,  313, 
333,  348,  355-356,  383;  introduces 
bill  for  United  States  Bank,  352; 
speech  on  Compromise  of  1850, 
375-378 ;   death,  383. 

Clayton  Anti-Trust  Law,  503. 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  537. 

Clemenceau,  Georges  (klay  mangso', 
zhSrzh),  617,  618. 

Clemens,  Samuel  L.  (Mark  Twain), 
567. 

Clermont,  Fulton's  steamboat,  316. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  President,  509,  513, 
520,  521. 

Cleveland  (Ohio),  540. 

Clinton,  Governor  De  Witt,  plans  Erie 
Canal,  318. 


Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  British  com- 
mander, 193,  195-196,  197-198. 

Coal.     See  Mining  Industries. 

Cold  Harbor,  Va.,  battle  of,  451. 

Colleges,  colonial,  140.     See  University. 

Colonies,  life  in,  126-141 ;  population 
and  immigration,  126-127  ;  govern- 
ment, 129 ;  industries,  129-131 ; 
labor  system,  131-132;  slavery 
and  slave  trade,  132  ;  houses,  132- 
135;  clothing,  136-137;  amuse- 
ments and  sports,  137 ;  religious 
life,  137-139 ;  schools  and  news- 
papers, 140 ;  relations  with  Great 
Britain,  143-158;  in  American 
Revolution,  160-203. 

Colonization,  Spanish,  20-26  ;  French, 
32-39  ;  early  English  efforts,  27-30, 
109  ;    Dutch,  39-40 ;    Swedish,  98. 

Colorado,  22,  262,  367,  384,  491,  548. 

Columbia,  rejects  canal  treaty,  538. 

Columbia  College,  founded,  140. 

Columbia  River,  explored  by  Captain 
Gray,  248,  357  ;  by  Lewis  and  Clark, 
261,  357.     See  Oregon. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  early  life,  9 ; 
influenced  by  Toscanelli  and  Marco 
Polo,  9-10;  Spanish  aid,  10-11; 
preparation  for  voyage,  1 1 ;  first 
voyage,  11-13;  later  voyages,  13- 
14 ;    last  days  and  death,  14. 

Commerce,  routes  to  the  East,  4-8; 
in  colonial  times,  130-131 ;  under 
the  Confederation,  217  ;  compromise 
on,  in  Constitutional  Convention, 
224;  early  trade  with  China,  248; 
growth  of,  after  1830,  411-412;  in 
the  Pacific,  248,  367,  485;  regu- 
lation of,  503-504 ;  recent  growth 
of,  561-562. 

Commission  government  in  cities,  564. 

Committees  of  Correspondence,  154- 
155. 

Common  Sense,  Paine's  pamphlet,  171. 

Compass,  invented,  7. 

Compromise  of  1850,  375-378. 

Concord,  163-164. 

Confederacy,  the  Southern,  formed, 
399 ;  seizes  federal  property,  419 ; 
seeks  foreign  recognition,  422,  426- 
428.     See  Civil  War. 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  adopted, 
211;  defects  of,  212,  216-218; 
comparison  with  Constitution,  228- 
229. 


INDEX 


xxix 


Confederation,  New  England,  91-92. 

Conference,  Peace.  See  Peace  Con- 
ference. 

Congregational  Church,  139. 

Congress,  Stamp  Act,  150;  First 
Continental,  160-161 ;  Second  Con- 
tinental, 167-168,  209;  of  Con- 
federation, 212,  216-219  ;  of  United 
States,  225-226. 

Connecticut,  40,  90,  91,  93,  99,  129, 
157,  158,  160,  212,  217,  230,  283. 

Conscription,  during  Civil  War,  458 ; 
in  the  World  War,  578-579. 

Conservation  movement,  540-542. 

Constantinople,  6. 

Constitution  (Old  Ironsides),  warship, 
276,  277,  278. 

Constitution,  the  Federal,  framed  at 
Philadelphia,  221-229;  compromises 
of,  223-225  ;  sources  of,  225  ;  contrast 
with  Articles  of  Confederation,  228- 
229  ;  amendments,  227  ;  ratification, 
229-230;  first  tests  of,  240;  two 
constructions  of,  241  ;  text,  Appen- 
dix B.     See  Amendments. 

Constitution,  early  state,  210-211. 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1787, 
proposed,  219;    work  of,  221-229. 

Continental  currency.     See  Money. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  author,  344. 

Copperheads,  the,  460-461. 

Cornwallis,  Lord  Charles,  British 
commander,  179,  197-198,  199,  200 ; 
surrenders  at  Yorktown,  201-203. 

Coronado,  explores  Southwest,  22. 

Corporations,  recent  growth  of,  501- 
505. 

Correspondence,  Committees  of,  154- 
155. 

Cortez,  Hernando  de,  conquers  Mexico, 
21-22. 

Cotes  de  Florimont,  Les  (no'ri  mong) , 
609. 

Cotton  gin,  invention  of,  290;  in- 
fluence on  slavery,  301-302. 

Cotton  industry,  rise  of,  290;  im- 
proved machinery,  290-291  ;  in  the 
Southwest,  296-297 ;  slave  labor 
and,  309,  405-406;  during  Civil 
War,  422. 

County,  in  South,  128 ;  county-town- 
ship government,  300-301. 

Courts,  National,  226-227,  236. 

Cowpens,  S.  C,  battle  at,  199. 

Crawford,  Francis  M.,  author,  568. 


Crawford,  W.  H.,  presidential  candi- 
date, 313. 

Creel,  George,  589. 

Crisis,  The,  Thomas  Paine's  pamphlet, 
178. 

Crittenden  Compromise,  400-401. 

Croix  de  Guerre  (krwii  de  gair),  610. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  ruler  of  England,  65, 
71,  99. 

Crown  Point,  captured  by  patriots, 
169. 

Crusades,  the,  2. 

Cuba,  discovered  by  Columbus,  13 ; 
Spanish  colony,  20,  123 ;  revolts 
in,  525,  526 ;  United  States  army 
in,  530;    independence  of,  531,  532. 

Cumberland  Road.  See  National 
Road. 

Currency.     See  Money. 

Curtis,  George  William,  568. 

Custer,  Gen.  George  A.,  493. 

Czar,  Russian,  proposes  The  Hague 
Conference,  543. 

Czecho-Slovak  Republic  (check'o- 
slo'vak),  627,  631. 

Dale,      Sir      Thomas,      governor      of 

Virginia,  62. 
Dana,  Charles  A.,  author,  345. 
Danish     West     Indies,    purchase    of, 

481. 
Danzig,  624. 
Dare,  Virginia,  29-30. 
Darien.     See  Panama,  Isthmus  of. 
Davis,   Jefferson,   youth   of,   297-298 ; 

opposes  Compromise  of   1850,  377 ; 

in  Civil  War,  399,  419,  420. 
Debt,    assumed    by    national    govern- 
ment, 236-237 ;   payment  of  (1835), 

335 ;  created  by  Civil  War,  459,  462  ; 

by  the  World  War,  588,  630.     See 

Bonds. 
Declaration   of    Independence,    events 

leading  to,  170-172  ;   author  of,  173  ; 

adopted,  174  ;   text,  see  Appendix  A. 
Delaware,  40,  69,  108,  129,   139,  230, 

301,  369,  420,  462. 
Delaware,  Lord,  governor  of  Virginia, 

61,  62. 
De  Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  537. 
Demarcation,  line  of,  15. 
Democracy,     changes    American    life, 

341-348 ;      threatened    by    German 

militarism,    571-573;     final    victory 

of,  617-637. 


XXX 


INDEX 


Democratic  party,  founded  by  Jeffer- 
son, 241-242  ;  gains  control  of  the 
government,  254-255,  256-257 ; 
Jackson  as  leader  of,  327-338 ; 
divides  on  slavery  issue,  395 ; 
elects  Cleveland,  516,  520 ;  elects 
Wilson,  550. 

Departments,   federal.     See  Cabinet. 

Detroit,  39,  190,  191,  246,  273,  274, 
275,  305,  317,  558. 

D'Esperey,  General  (da/pair  a'),  611. 

Dewey,  Admiral  George,  at  Manila 
Bay,  528-529. 

Diaz  (de'as),  Bartholomew,  discovers 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  7,  10. 

Diaz,  Gen.  Porfirio,  President  of 
Mexico,  551. 

Diaz,  Gen.,  612. 

Dickinson,  John,  160. 

Dingley  Tariff,  the,  517. 

Dinwiddie,  Governor,  115. 

Direct  legislation,  547-548. 

Direct  primary,  547. 

District  of  Columbia,  237,  348,  457. 

Divine  Right  theory,  79,  85. 

Dix,  Dorothea,  341. 

Dix,  John  A.,  415. 

Dobrudja  (d5  brood'ja),  597. 

Domain,  public,  creation  of,  212-214. 
See  Lands. 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  champions 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  384,  385, 
386,  387;  debates  with  Lincoln, 
393-394  ;  candidate  for  Presidency, 
395,  398. 

Draft.     See  Conscription. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  attacks  Spanish 
commerce,  27 ;  world  voyage  of, 
27-28,  357. 

Dred  Scott  decision,  391-392. 

Duluth,  490. 

Duquesne,  Governor,  113,  115. 

Dutch,  in  New  Netherland,  40,  96-101 ; 
conquer  New  Sweden,  98  ;  surrender 
New  Netherland  to  the  English, 
101. 

Dutch  West  India  Company,  40,  96- 
97. 

Early,    Gen.    Jubal    A.,    Confederate 

commander,  452,  453. 
Earth,  early  ideas  about  its  size  and 

shape,  1-2. 
Education,  colonial,  140-141 ;    district 

school  system,  301 ;   development  of, 


in  Massachusetts  and  at  the  North, 
342 ;  land  grants  for,  343 ;  State 
universities,  343-344  ;  in  the  South, 
499-500 ;  present  conditions,  564- 
567. 

Eighteenth  Amendment,  549. 

El  Caney,  battle  at,  530. 

Electoral  Commission,  477. 

Electoral  Count  Act,  477. 

Electricity :  for  lighting  and  trans- 
portation, 558 ;  telegraph,  558 ; 
telephone,  558 ;    wireless,  559. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  26,  28, 
29,  57,  78. 

Emancipation,  demand  for,  456 ;  Lin- 
coln's proclamation,  457-458 ; 
results  of,  457-458;  Thirteenth 
Amendment,  462.     See  Abolition. 

Embargo  Act,  under  Jefferson,  265- 
267,  284,  291. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  author,  345. 

Employers'  Associations,  506-507. 

Engine,  steam,  invention  of,  288. 

England.     See  Great  Britain. 

Episcopal  Church,  139. 

Era  of  Good  Feeling,  305-306,  309. 

Ericson,  Leif,  discovers  America,  14- 
15. 

Ericsson,  John,  inventor,  450. 

Erie  Canal,  318-319. 

Europe,  beginnings  of  American  his- 
tory in,  1-8 ;  during  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, 3-4  ;  and  the  East,  4-5 ;  the 
Holy  Alliance,  307,  308;  attitude 
of,  during  Civil  War,  422,  426-427 ; 
during  Spanish-American  War,  529 ; 
recent  World  War  in,  569. 

Evian  (av'yan),  592. 

Excise  tax,  240. 

Expositions :  Philadelphia  (Centennial, 
1876),  558;  Chicago  (1893),  560; 
Buffalo  (1901),  536,  561 ;  St.  Louis 
(1904),  561;  San  Francisco  (1915), 
561. 

Factory  system,  origin  of,  in  England, 
289  ;  in  America,  289-292  ;  growth 
and  results  of,  292,  408-409  ;  factory 
laws,  505-506. 

Faneuil  Hall,  380. 

Farm  machinery,  improvements  in, 
405. 

Farms.     See  Agriculture. 

Farragut,  Admiral  David  B.,  in  Civil 
War,  433-434. 


INDEX 


xxxi 


Federalists,  urge  adoption  of  con- 
stitution, 230;  favor  liberal  con- 
struction, 241-242  ;  oppose  War  of 
1812,  271 ;    downfall  of,  283,  312. 

Federal  Reserve  Act,  523. 

Federal  Trade  Commission,  503. 

Field,  Eugene,  568. 

Fifteenth  Amendment,  472. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  President,  372,  377- 
381,  383. 

Finances  :  during  the  Revolution,  179- 
180 ;  under  the  Confederation 
government,  217  ;  Hamilton's  finan- 
cial policy,  236-237,  239;  during 
the  Civil  War,  458-460 ;  during  the 
panic  of  1893,  521  ;  in  the  World 
War,  588.     See  Money. 

Financial  panics.     See  Panics. 

Finland,  597. 

Fisheries,  the,  attract  French  sailors, 
32 ;  in  colonial  times,  130 ;  arbi- 
tration of  dispute  over,  543. 

Fiske,  John,  historian,  568. 

Fiume  (feoom'6),  632. 

Florida,  20-21,  22,  23,  75-76,  123,  204, 
306,  399,  476. 

Foch,  General  Ferdinand  (fosh), 
595. 

Food  supply,  in  World  War,  586-587. 

Foote,  Commodore  A.  H.,  Union  com- 
mander, 430. 

Ford  Automobile  Company,  507. 

Forest  reserves,  540-541. 

Fort  Amsterdam,  40,  96. 

Fort  Crown  Point  (N.  Y.),  169. 

Fort  Donelson  (Tenn.),  430,  431. 

Fort  Duquesne  (Pa.),  115,  116,  117- 
119,  120-121. 

Fort  Frederica  (Ga.),  76. 

Fort  Henry  (Tenn.),  430. 

Fort  Lee  (N.  Y.),  176. 

Fort  McHenry  (Baltimore),  280. 

Fort  Necessity  (Pa.),  115. 

Fort  Niagara  (N.  Y.),  121,  276. 

Fort  Orange  (N.  Y.),  40. 

Fort  Pitt  (Pittsburgh),  121. 

Fort  Sumter  (Charleston,  S.  C),  399, 
400,  419. 

Fort  Sutter  (Cal.),  372,  373. 

Fort  Ticonderoga  (N.  Y.),  34,  169, 
181. 

Fort  Washington  (N.  Y.),  176. 

Fourteenth  Amendment,  462,  468,  469. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  sides  with  colonists, 
144,  174. 


Fox,  George,  founds  the  Quaker  sect, 
103. 

France,   early  exploration   and   settle- 

.  ments  in  America,  32-39,  111; 
claims  of,  in  North  America,  39  : 
at  war  with  England,  112-124; 
aids  United  States  in  Revolution, 
183-184;  revolution  in,  244;  con- 
troversy with  United  States,  246, 
250-251 ;  cedes  Louisiana,  258-260  ; 
attitude  during  Civil  War,  422,  426- 
427 ;  occupation  of  Mexico,  4S0- 
481;  in  the  World  War,  571-574, 
590-593,  595,  597-608. 

Franco-Prussian  War,  569,  570. 

Franklin,    Benjamin,    116,    155,    162, 

173,  184,  221,  229. 
Frederick  the  Great,  183,  188. 
Fredericksburg   (Va.),   battle  of,  445- 

446. 
Free  silver,  519-522. 
Free  Soil  party,  372,  389. 
Free  trade.     See  Tariff. 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  467-468. 
Fremont,  John  C,  364,  365,  390. 
French  and  Indian  War,  112-124. 
Frontier,  the,  496-497.     See  Westward 

movement. 
Fuel  supply,  in  World  War,  587. 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  378,  380. 
P"ulton,  Robert,  invents  steamboat,  316. 
Fur  trade,  34,  91,  111,  113,   130,  261, 

357. 

Gag  rule,  in  Congress,  347-348. 

Gage,  Gen.  Thomas,  British  com- 
mander in  Revolution,  158,  163,  165. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  257. 

Gama  (ga'ma),  Vasco  da,  Portuguese 
navigator,  8. 

Garfield,  Harry  A.,  587. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  President,  512. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  abolitionist, 
347. 

Gas,  use  of,  in  warfare,  573,  583. 

Gaspee  (gas-pe') ,  British  tea  vessel,  154. 

Gates,  Gen.  Horatio,  in  Revolution, 
182,  199. 

Genet  (zhe-na/),  Edmond  Charles, 
French  minister,  245-246. 

Geneva  Award,  the,  482. 

Genoa,  rival  of  Venice  in  eastern 
trade,  4  ;   birthplace  of  Columbus,  9. 

George  III,  King  of  England,  144,  154, 

174,  184,  203. 


XXX11 


INDEX 


Georgia,  22,  75-76,  130,  160,  188,  196- 
197,  198,  213,  230,  294,  296,  306, 
399,  405. 

Germans,  early  immigration  of,  to 
America,  127. 

Germantown  (Pa.),  battle  at,  184-185. 

Germany,  unfriendly  attitude  of,  in 
Samoa,  485;  at  Manila  Bay,  529; 
character  of  government,  569  ;  plans 
of,  570-573 ;  claims  against  Vene- 
zuela, 544 ;  in  the  World  War,  569- 
578;  ruthless  policies  of,  573-575; 
intrigues  in  the  United  States,  576 ; 
in  Mexico,  552  ;  at  war  with  United 
States,  574-575,  576-578. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  447-449;  Lin- 
coln's speech  at,  346. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  281. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  28-29. 

Gilder,  Richard  Watson,  568. 

Gist,  Christopher,  113,  115. 

Goethals,  Colonel  Geo.  W.,  538. 

Gold,  discovered  in  California,  372- 
374 ;  in  Alaska,  542 ;  mining  of, 
409-410,  491;  in  Colorado,  491; 
gold  reserve,  519 ;  gold  standard, 
522-523. 

Gompers,  Samuel,  labor  leader,  505, 
586. 

Gorges  (gor'jez),  Sir  Ferdinando,  land 
grant  to,  93. 

Gouraud,  Gen.  (goo'ro),  608. 

Government,  federal,  227-228. 

Grant,  Gen.  Ulysses  S.,  in  Civil  War, 
430,  431-432,  436,  437,  439,  440, 
451,  452-454;  President,  473-476, 
512. 

Grasse,  Count  de,  French  admiral, 
201-203. 

Gray,  Capt.  Robert,  248,  357. 

Great  Britain,  reformation  in,  78-79 ; 
voyages  of  Cabots,  15;  becomes  a 
world  power,  26 ;  attacks  Spanish 
commerce,  27-28 ;  defeats  Spanish 
Armada,  28 ;  conditions  favoring 
colonization,  57-58 ;  early  settle- 
ments, in  Virginia,  57-67 ;  in  other 
Southern  Colonies,  69-77;  in  New 
England,  78-95  ;  in  Middle  Colonies, 
96 ;  seizes  New  Netherland,  100- 
101 ;  struggle  with  France  for 
North  America,  112-124;  colonial 
policy  of,  143-158;  American 
Revolution  and,  160-207;  early 
relations   with   United   States,    218, 


246-247;  Jay's  treaty,  247;  search 
and  impressment,  264-265 ;  AVar  of 
1812,  269-285 ;  Oregon  controversy 
with,  357-359 ;  relations  with,  dur- 
ing Civil  War,  422,  426-428 ;  arbi- 
tration of  Alabama  claims,  482  ; 
arbitration  of  the  Behring  Dispute, 
485;  Venezuelan  boundary  con- 
troversy, 486 ;  Alaskan  boundary 
dispute,  543-544 ;  Newfoundland 
fisheries  question,  543 ;  claims 
against  Venezuela,  544 ;  in  World 
War,  571,  573  ;  present-day  relations 
with,  632-633. 

Greeley,  Horace,  420,  476. 

Greenback  party,  519. 

Greene,  Gen.  Nathanael,  in  Revolution, 
167,  178,  199-200. 

Greenland,  14,  109. 

Grenville,  George,  British  Premier,  147, 
149,  171. 

Guam,  531. 

Guilford  Court  House  (N.  C),  battle 
at,  200. 

Gunpowder,  invented,  7. 

Hague  Conference,  543 ;  The  Hague 
Court,  543. 

Haig,  Field  Marshal  Sir  Douglas,  601. 

Haiti,  13,  20,  27,  109,  545. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  568. 

Half  Moon,  Hudson's  ship,  39-40. 

Halleck,  Gen.  Henry  W.,  Union  com- 
mander, 431,  432. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  219,  221,  230, 
235,  236-237,  239,  241-242,  255. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Henry,  190-191. 

Hancock,  Gen.  Winfield  S.,  Union 
commander,  449 ;  presidential 
candidate,  512. 

Hancock,  John,  in  Revolution,  158. 

Harper's  Ferry  (Va.),  394-395,  445. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  author,  568. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  President,  516- 
517. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  defeats 
Indians,  271,  274,  275;  elected 
President,  338 ;  inauguration  and 
death,  351. 

Harte,  Bret,  568. 

Hartford  (Conn.),  settled,  90;  con- 
vention at,  283. 

Harvard  College,  founded,  140. 

Hawaii,  revolution  in,  485-486 ; 
annexed,  531,  533,  534. 


INDEX 


xxxm 


Hawkins,  Sir  John,  English  son  cap- 
tain, 27. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  author,  345. 

Hay,  John,  policy  toward  China.  •">:;!. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  President,  476, 
477,  478. 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,  in  debate  with 
Webster,  330, 

Hedjaz  (hgj'az),  632. 

Heligoland,  622, 

Helper,  Hinton  R.,  anti-slavery  author, 

»  412. 

Henry  VIII,  26,  58,  78. 

Henry,  Patrick,  63,  149-150,  161,  170, 
229. 

Herkimer,  Gen.  Nicholas,  181. 

Hessians,  in  Revolution,  171,  178. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Went  worth,  568. 

High  Schools.     See  Education. 

Hindenburg,  610. 

Hobson,  Lieut.  Richmond  P.,  530. 

Holland.     See  Netherlands. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  author,  345. 

Holy  Alliance,  307,  308. 

Homestead  Act,  403,  405,  490-491. 

Hood,  Gen.  John  B.,  Confederate 
commander,  438,  439. 

Hooker,  Gen.  Joseph,  Union  com- 
mander, 436,  437,  447. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  Connecticut  pioneer, 
90. 

Hoover,  Herbert  C.,  586,  587. 

House  of  Burgesses.  See  Burgesses, 
House  of. 

House  of  Representatives,  how  com- 
posed, 225;  elects  President,  254- 
255,  313.     See  Congress. 

Houston,  Gen.  Sam,  in  Texas,  354. 

Howe,  Elias,  inventor,  410. 

Howe,  Gen.  William,  British  com- 
mander in  Revolution,  166,  170, 
176,  178,  179,  184-185. 

Howells,  William  D.,  author,  568. 

Hudson,  Henry,  discovers  Hudson 
River,  39-40. 

Hudson   River,    39-40,   42,    112,    180, 

195-196,  318. 
Hudson  Valley,  175,  180. 
Huerta,  General,  551. 
Hughes,  Charles  E.,  presidential  can- 
didate, 552. 
Huguenots,  34,  72,  111,  127. 
Hull,  Capt.  Isaac,  naval  captain,  276. 
Hull,  Gen.  William,  surrenders  Detroit, 
273. 


Hurd,  Archibald,  581. 
Hutchinson,  Mrs.  Anne,  89,  154. 

Iceland,  9,  14. 
Idaho,  359,  490,  548. 
Illinois,  215,  297,  302,  316,  391,  392, 
393,  397,  457,  549,  558. 

Immigration,  294-295,  405,  407,  513- 

515. 
Impeachment,    of   President   Johnson, 
469-470. 

Imperialism,  question  of,  536. 

Impressment,  of  American  sailors, 
247,  270,  272,  281,  284. 

Income  tax,  459,  517,  549,  588. 

Indented  servants,  63,  131-132. 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  170- 
174.     Text,  Appendix  A. 

Independent  treasury,  established, 
336-337. 

Independents  or  Separatists,  origin 
of,  78-79 ;  migrate  to  Holland, 
79-80. 

India,  5,  6,  7-8,  9,  13,  15. 

Indiana,  215,  297,  303,  316,  319,  457. 

Indians,  naming  of,  13,  45 ;  treatment 
by  Spaniards,  25-26 ;  families  and 
tribes,  48 ;  mode  of  life,  46,  49-50 ; 
warfare,  50-51 ;  religion,  52 ;  char- 
acter, 52-53 ;  relations  with  colo- 
nists, 54-55,  127 ;  in  Revolution, 
189;  Indian  wars,  92,  271,  491, 
493-494 ;  our  policy  toward,  494- 
495. 

Indian  Territory,  open  to  settlement, 
496. 

Industrial  Revolution,  287-292. 

Industry.     See  Manufacturing. 

Initiative,  548. 

Injunction,  509. 

Insurance,  soldiers,  589. 

Internal  improvements,  322-323,  539- 
540. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  504. 

Intolerable  Acts,  157-158,  161. 

Inventions,  in  fifteenth  century,  3,  7 ; 
in  early  nineteenth  century,  410- 
411;  recent,  559-560. 

Irish,  the,  in  United  States,  126,  420. 

Iron  industry,  establishment  of,  in 
Pennsylvania,  292 ;  growth  of, 
409  ;  in  the  South,  498-499  ;  recent 
development,  556. 

Iroquois  Indians,  34-35,  40,  48,  96. 

Irrigation,  491,  541-542. 


XXXIV 


INDEX 


Irving,  Washington,  author,  98,  344. 

Isabella,  Queen  of  Spain,  aids  Colum- 
bus, 10,  11,  13,  14. 

Island  Number  10,  in  Civil  War,  430, 
433. 

Italy,  early  trade  of,  4-5;  dispute 
with  United  States,  484 ;  claims 
against  Venezuela,  544 ;  in  World 
War,  573. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  victor  at  New 
Orleans,  280-281 ;  campaign  in 
Florida,  306;  in  election  of  1824, 
313;  elected  President,  324;  char- 
acter of,  327 ;  inaugurates  spoils 
system,  328 ;  opposes  nullification, 
331-332;  war  on  the  United  States 
Bank,  333-334. 

Jackson,  Gen.  Thomas  J.  (Stonewall), 
at  Bull  Run,  425;  campaign  in 
Shenandoah  Valley,  442,  444  ;  seizes 
Harper's  Ferry,  445;  killed  at 
Chancellorsville,  446-447. 

Jamaica,  109. 

James,  Henry,  author,  568. 

James  I,  King  of  England,  persecutes 
Puritans,  79,  80 ;  charters  London 
Company,  58,  62  ;  revokes  Virginia 
charter,  64. 

James  II,  King  of  England,  71,  93-94, 
101-102. 

James  River,  42,  43. 

Jamestown,  60-67. 

Japan,  visited  by  Perry,  367  ;  relations 
with  China  and  United  States, 
545-546 ;   in  World  War,  573,  576. 

Jaulgonne  (zholgon'),  602. 

Jay,  John,  160,  230,  247. 

Jay's  Treaty,  247. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  writes  Declaration 
of  Independence,  173 ;  in  Wash- 
ington's Cabinet,  235 ;  founds  a 
political  party,  237,  241-242  ;  author 
of  Kentucky  Resolutions,  253  ;  Vice- 
President,  249;  President,  254- 
255,  256-267 ;  opinion  on  slavery 
dispute,  310. 

Jesuits,  in  Canada,  36. 

Jewett,  Sarah  Orne,  568. 

Joffre,  Joseph  Jacques  (zhof),  599. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent, 461 ;  President,  465-473  ;  im- 
peachment of,  469-470. 

Johnston,  Gen.  Albert  Sidney,  Con- 
federate commander,  431,  432. 


]  Johnston,  Gen.  Joseph  E.,  Confederate 
commander,  423,  424,  438,  440,  441, 
444. 
Joliet,  Louis,  French  explorer,  36-37. 
Jones,  John  Paul,  in  sea  fight,  192-193. 
Jugo-Slavia,  631. 

Kalb,  Baron  Johann  De,  187,  199. 
Kansas,   22,   262,   383-389,    392,   394, 

549. 
Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  384-386. 
Kearny,  Stephen  W.,  364-365. 
Kentucky,    189,    216,    247,    248,    253, 

293,   330,   398,   403,  429,  430,  431, 

433,  434,  456,  462. 
Key,  Francis  Scott,  280. 
Kiaochow  (kee  ow'chow),  624. 
Kiel  Canal,  622. 
King  Philip's  War,  92. 
King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  199,  216. 
Klondike,  gold  discoveries  in,  542. 
Knights  of  Labor,  505. 
Knox,  General  Henry,  235. 
Kosciuszko   (kos-i-us'k.6) ,  Gen.,  in  the 

Revolution,  187. 
Ku  Klux  Klan,  471-472. 

Labor,  in  colonial  times,  63-64,  131- 
132 ;  under  factory  production, 
286-289;  North  and  South  com- 
pared, 406-408 ;  organization  of, 
505;    strikes,  507-509. 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  in  Revolution- 
ary War,  185,  187,  200-201;  re- 
visits United  States,  312. 

Lake  Champlain,  34,  112,  121,  175, 
181,  273,  279. 

Lake  Erie,  113,  115,  318,  319,  502. 

Lake  Erie,  battle  of,  274-275. 

Lake  George,  175. 

Lake  Huron,  34. 

Lake  Michigan,  36. 

Lake  Ontario,  112,  180. 

Lake  Superior,  502. 

Lands,  public,  ceded  by  states,  212- 
213;  system  of  surveys,  213-214; 
speculation  in,  335-336 ;  grants  for 
education,  343  ;  grants  to  railroads, 
489;  Homestead  Act,  403,  405, 
490-491  ;  forest  reserves,  540-541 ; 
irrigation,  491,  541-542.  See  North- 
west Territory. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  poet,  568. 

Laon  (laong').  610. 

La  Salle,  Robert,  French  explorer,  37. 


INDEX 


xxxv 


Law,  common,  59. 

Lawrence,  Captain  James,  278. 

Laws,  how  made,  225-226. 

League  of  Nations,  the,  614,  618-620, 
621. 

Lecompton  constitution,  387. 

Lee,  Gen.  Charles,  in  Revolution,  176- 
177,  187-188. 

Lee,  Gen.  Robert  E.,  394;  joins 
Confederacy,  421 ;  battles,  444, 
445,  446,  447,  448,  449,  451,  452; 
surrenders  at  Appomattox,  453-454. 

Lee,  Henry  (Light  Horse  Harry),  195, 
200. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  161,  172,  229. 

Legal  Tender  Act,  459. 

Legislature,  state,  209,  211,  300; 
National,  see  Congress. 

Lens  (lanz),  610. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  Frencn  engi- 
neer, 537. 

Lewis  and  Clark,  exploring  expedition, 
260-261,  293,  357. 

Lexington,  163,  164,  165. 

Liberator,  The,  abolition  newspaper, 
347. 

Liberty  Loans,  588. 

Liberty  Motor,  5S4. 

Lille  (lei),  610. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  early  life  of,  297- 
298  ;  speeches,  346  ;  criticises  Dred 
Scott  decision,  392 ;  debates  with 
Douglas,  393-394 ;  nominated  for 
President,  395,  397-398;  opposes 
Crittenden  Compromise,  401  ;  first 
inaugural,  416-417;  Cabinet,  417; 
calls  for  volunteers,  420 ;  in  Civil 
War,  442,  449,  451;  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  456-458 ;  reelection, 
461;  reconstruction  policy,  465  < 
assassination,  454. 

Lincoln,  Gen.  Benjamin,  surrenders 
Charleston,  198. 

Literature,  American,  344-346, 567-568. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.,  minister  to 
France,  173. 

Lloyd-George,  David,  617. 

Local  government,  in  early  New 
England,  82,  87-88,  127-128;  in 
Southern  colonies,  128 ;  in  Middle 
colonies,  129;  in  the  West,  300-301. 
See  Cities. 

Locomotive,  steam,  invention  of,  320. 
See  Railroads. 

Log  Cabin  Campaign,  the,  338. 


London    Company,    charter    to,    58 : 

establishes   Jamestown    colony,    60 . 

forfeits  charter,  64. 
Longfellow,    Henry    W.,    author,    33, 

344-345. 
Long  Island,  battle  of,  175-176. 
Longstreet,   Gen.   James,   Confederate 

commander,  436,  449. 
Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  436. 
Loom,  power,  288. 
Lords,  House  of,  161-162. 
Louis  XVI,  244. 
Louisburg,  116,  119;  capture  of,  120- 

121. 
Louisiana    (state    of),    302,    399,    406, 

435,  476,  477. 
Louisiana,  territory  of,  explored  by  La 

Salle,    37-38;     ceded    to    Napoleon, 

257;     sold   to    United   States,    258- 

260 ;      southwestern     boundary     of, 

306-307. 
Louisville,  216,  433. 
Lowell,  Francis  C,  291. 
Lowell,    James    Russell,    author,    345; 

tribute  to  Lincoln,  454-455. 
Loyalists,     in    American    Revolution, 

170,    175,    188,    189,    199,   200,   204, 

218  ;   emigration  of,  and  results,  273. 
Ludendorff,  General  von,  597,  604,  612. 
Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  276. 
Lusitania,  sinking  of  the,  574-575. 
Lynn  (Mass.),  558. 
Lyon,  Capt.  Nathaniel,  429. 

McAdoo,  William  G.,  587. 
McClellan,    Gen.    George    B.,    Union 

commander,     429,     441,     442,     444, 

445,  454,  461. 
McCormick,  Cyrus  H.,  inventor,  422. 
McCormick,  Vance,  586. 
McDowell,  Gen.  Irvin,  424,  442,  444. 
McKinley,    William,    introduces   tariff 

bill,     516;      President,     521,     522, 

525-536 ;    assassinated,  536. 
McMaster,  John  Bach,  568. 
Macdonough,   Lieut.   Thomas,   defeats 

British,  279. 
Madison,   James,   early   services,   221, 

223;    President,  267,  269-285. 
Magellan,  Ferdinand,  world  voyage  of, 

18-19. 
Maine,  39,   92-93,  94,  279,  310,  342, 

343. 
Maine,  battleship,  527. 
Manassas,  battle  of.     See  Bull  Run. 


XXXVI 


INDEX 


Manhattan,  40. 

Manila  Bay,  battle  of,  528-529. 

Mann,  Horace,  342. 

Manufacturing,  forbidden  in  colonies, 
131 ;  effect  of  Embargo  and  War  of 
1812,  283  ;  introduction  of  machin- 
ery, 289-292;  demand  for  pro- 
tection, 283 ;  North  and  South 
contrasted,  422 ;  growth  of,  409 ; 
in  the  South,  498-499;  in  recent 
times,  556.  See  Industrial  Revolu- 
tion, Tariff. 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  inventor,  559. 

Marietta  (Ohio),  215. 

Marion,  Gen.  Francis,  in  Revolution, 
198. 

Marines,  in  World  War,  603. 

Marne,  battles  of  the,  600,  601. 

Marquette,  Father  Jacques,  French 
explorer,  36-37. 

Marshall,  John,  Chief  Justice,  250,  255. 

Maryland,  69-72,  129,  130,  139,  211- 
212,  213,  218,  230,  237,  240,  292, 
316,  370,  420,  445,  456,  462. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  108. 

Mason,  Captain  John,  93. 

Mason,  James  M.,  Confederate  agent, 
427. 

Massachusetts,  85,  86,  88,  99,  126, 
129,  130,  153,  157,  158,  160,  162- 
163,  165,  167,  212,  217,  230,  283, 
289,  291,  292,  301,  310,  342,  409, 
420,  558. 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  founding 
of,  85 ;    early  history  of,  86-87. 

Massasoit,  Indian  chief,  83. 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  480. 

Mayence  (mlons'),  612. 

Mayflower,  voyage  of,  81. 

Mayo,  Rear  Admiral,  615. 

Meade,  Gen.  George  Gordon,  Union 
commander,  448,  449. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  2,  4,  6. 

Menendez,  Pedro,  Spanish  explorer,  23. 

Merchant  marine,  condition  of,  411- 
412,  584-585. 

Merrimac,  duel  with  Monitor,  449-451. 

Mexico,  City  of,  24. 

Mexico,  conquest  of,  21-22 ;  part  of 
New  Spain,  23  ;  wins  independence, 
307  ;  loses  Texas,  353-356  ;  at  war 
with  United  States,  362-368;  the 
French  in,  480-481 ;  recent  events 
in,  550-552. 

Mezieres  (maze air'),  608. 


Michigan,  36,  215,  273,  275,  389. 

Middle  Colonies,  the,  129.  See  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Miles,  Gen.  Nelson  A.,  530. 

Militarism,  in  Germany,  leads  to 
World  War,  569-574 ;  safeguards 
against,  622. 

Milwaukee  (Wis.),  540. 

Mining  industries,  372-373,  409-410, 
491,  542. 

Minneapolis  (Minn.),  558. 

Minnesota,  215,  391,  392. 

Mint,  established,  239. 

Minuit  (min'u-it),  early  Dutch  gover- 
nor, 40. 

Minutemen,  in  Revolution,  163-165, 
168. 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of,  436. 

Missions,  Spanish,  23-24. 

Missouri,  302,  309-310,  360,  386,  429, 
456,  462. 

Missouri  Compromise,  309-312,  369, 
384 ;  proposal  to  extend  to  the 
Pacific,  370;  repealed,  385-386; 
pronounced  void  in  Dred  Scott 
case,  391-392. 

Missouri  River,  explored  by  Lewis  and 
Clark,  260-261. 

Mississippi,  22,  298,  303,  306,  399, 
406,  469. 

Mississippi  River,  22,  36-37,  204,  212, 
262,  280,  293,  430,  433,  434,  435. 

Mississippi  Valley,  37,  39,  233,  423. 

Mitchell,  Donald  Grant,  568. 

Mohawk  Valley,  112. 

Money,  during  Revolution,  179-180 ; 
wild-cat  currency,  335-336 ;  green- 
backs, 459 ;  resumption  of  specie 
payments,  519 ;  free  coinage  of 
silver,  519-522 ;  gold  standard 
adopted,  522 ;  federal  reserve  act, 
523.     See  Banks,  Finances. 

Monitor,  in  duel  with  Merrimac,  449- 
451. 

Monmouth,  battle  of,  187-188. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  origin  and  meaning, 
307-308;  violation  of,  in  Mexico, 
480-481;  Venezuelan  Controversy, 
486  ;  and  League  of  Nations,  619. 

Monroe,  James,  229,  258;  President, 
305-313. 

Montana,  359,  384,  490,  549. 

Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  French  com- 
mander, 120-123. 


INDEX 


xxxvn 


Montdidier  (mong  ded'ya),  604. 
Montenegro,  614. 
Montfaucon  (mong  fo  kong'),  604. 
Montgomery,         Richard,         invades 

Canada,  169. 
Montreal,  32,  35,  123,  169,  273,  276. 
Morgan,  Gen.  Daniel,  199. 
Mormons,  the,  491. 
Morris,  Robert,  179-180,  221. 
Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  inventor,  408. 
Motley,  John  Lothrop,  historian,  340. 
Mount    Vernon,    Washington's    home, 

133,  206,  249,  312. 
Mower     and      reaper,      invented      by 

McCormick,  422. 
Mugwumps,  the,  516. 
Muskogee  (mus-ko'ge)  Indians,  48. 

Napoleon  I,  military  leader,  245;  com- 
mercial treaty  with,  251  ;  sells 
Louisiana,  257-259 ;  decrees  of, 
264,  270;  ignores  Embargo  Act, 
266. 

Napoleon  III,  intervenes  in  Mexico, 
427. 

Napoleonic  AVars,  United  States  and, 
264,  269-270. 

Nast,  Thomas,  473-475,  476. 

Nations,  League  of,  614,  618-621. 

National  Road,  295-296. 

Naturalization,  treaties  concerning, 
482-483. 

Nauroy  (norwa/),  610. 

Navigation  Acts,  66-67,  143,  147. 

Navigation,  in  colonial  times,  67,  130- 
131 ;  early  development  of,  248 ; 
growth  of,  after  1830,  411;  decline 
of,  after  Civil  War,  412 ;  recent 
growth  of,  584-585. 

Navy,  in  Revolution,  192 ;  in  Bar- 
bary  wars,  262-263;  in  the  War  of 
1812,  274,  276-279;  in  Civil  War, 
425,430-431,433-434;  in  Spanish- 
American  War,  528-530 ;  in  the 
World  War,  580-581. 

Nebraska,  384,  386. 

Negro,  as  soldier,  458 ;  after  emanci- 
pation, 466-468;  suffrage,  473; 
during  Reconstruction  period,  470- 
473. 

Netherlands,  The,  grants  charter  to 
West  India  Company,  40,  96;  Pil- 
grims emigrate  to,  79-80 ;  rise  as  a 
sea  power,  98-99 ;  claims  all  terri- 
tory between  Delaware  and  Connect- 


icut rivers,  98 ;  at  war  with  Eng- 
land, 99-100,  184 ;  surrenders  New 
Netherland,  101. 

Neutrality,  Washington's  proclamation 
of,  245-246 ;  during  Napoleonic 
Wars,  264,  269-270 ;  in  World  War, 
574-577. 

Nevada,  367,  491,  549. 

New  Amsterdam,  founded  by  Minuit, 
40;  surrenders  to  English  fleet,  101. 
See  New  York  City. 

New  England,  coast  explored,  15,  32 ; 
colonization  of,  78-95  ;  local  govern- 
ment in,  82,  87-88,  127-128;  early 
industries  of,  127-128,  129-131; 
colonial  customs  of,  see  Colonies ; 
opposes  War  of  1812,  271,  283; 
attitude  on  slavery,  380.  See 
Boston,  and  the  several  New 
England  colonies. 

New  England  Confederation,  91-92. 

Newfoundland,  29,  33,  204,  525. 

New  France.     See  France. 

New  Hampshire,  92-93,  230.  301. 

New  Haven  (Conn.),  settled,  90-91; 
in  New  England  Confederation,  91 ; 
united  with  Connecticut,  93. 

New  Jersey,  94,  102,  103,  104,  132, 
139,  176-178,  184,  213,  217,  230, 
398,  558. 

New  Jersey  Plan,  in  Constitutional 
Convention,  223. 

New  Mexico,  48,  262,  356,  362,  363, 
364,  366,  367,  376,  496,  551. 

New  Netherland,  settled,  96-97  ;  under 
the  Dutch  governors,  97-100 ;  be- 
comes New  York,  100-101. 

New  Orleans,  39,  123,  247-248,  257, 
258,  262,  279,  280,  316,  317,  378, 
408,  433,  434,  499. 

Newspapers,  140 ;  New  York  Tribune, 
420,  476;  New  York  Times,  473, 
475. 

New  York  City,  126,  154,  175,  178, 
181,  184,  187,  196,  205,  230,  232, 
247,  279,  319,  321,  378,  408,  473, 
563. 

New  York  (state),  94,  101-102,  126, 
130,  132,  139,  158,  160,  175,  188, 
193,  205,  211,  213,  217,  230,  292, 
318,  319,  344,  409,  412,  457,  458, 
476,  549,  558. 

New  Sweden,  98. 

Nicolet  (nic'o-la),  Jean,  French  ex- 
plorer, 36. 


XXXV111 


INDEX 


Nineteenth     Amendment,      proposed, 

549. 
Non-Intercourse  Act,  267. 
North,    favors    protective    tariff,    323, 

328-330 ;       anti-slavery      sentiment 

in,    347-348 ;     military    strength    of 

North     and     South,     421-422.     See 

Local  Government. 
North,  Lord  Frederick,  British  premier, 

171,  184,  203. 
North  America,  climate,  42 ;    area  and 

waterways,  42-43  ;  forests  and  animal 

life,  43  ;    natives,  45-55. 
North  Carolina,  29,  72,  74,  126,  130- 

131,    139,    172,   189,   200,   213,  216, 

230,   294,   296,  405,   421,  453,  498. 
North  Dakota,  260,  384,  490. 
Northmen,  voyages  of,  14-15. 
Northwest,    explored   by   French,   36- 

37 ;     during    Revolution,    190-191  ; 

posts    held    by    British,    218,    246; 

Northwest  Territory,  213-215,  302. 
Northwest    Passage,    search    for,    19, 

32   36—37   39. 
Nova  Scotia,  14, 33, 39,  59, 1 19, 188, 204. 
Noyon  (nwayong'),  604. 
Nullification,     doctrine    of,     253-254 ; 

in  South  Carolina,  331-332. 

Oglethorpe,    Gen.    James,    founder    of 

Georgia,  75-76. 
Ohio,  215-216,  241,  293,  294-295,  316, 

319,  343,  403,  457,  460,  476,  558. 
Ohio  Company,  the,  113. 
Ohio  River,  37,  45,  113,  118,  212,  213, 

215,  309,  316,  319. 
Ohio  Valley,  113-114,  115,  117. 
Oil  industry,  410,  557. 
Oklahoma,  496. 
Omaha  (Nebraska),  489,  558. 
Omir,  John,  585. 
Orders  in  Council,  264,  273. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  214-215. 
Oregon,    28,   261,   356,   357-360,   367, 

403,  488,  549. 
Oregon,  battleship,  530. 
Oregon  Trail,  359-360,  373,  488. 
Orlando,  617. 
Otis,  James,  148,  153. 

Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  by  Balboa, 
17-18 ;  our  early  trade  interests  in, 
248  ;  United  States  becomes  a  power 
in,  367,  485,  528-529,  533-534. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  author,  568. 


Paine,  Thomas,  171,  178. 

Panama  Canal,  536-538. 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  17-18,  368. 

Panama-Pacific  International  Exposi- 
tion, 561. 

Pan-American  Congress,  484. 

Pan-American  Exposition,  536,  561. 

Panic,  of  1837,  334-336 ;  of  1873,  518 ; 
of  1893,  521. 

Paper  money.     See  Money. 

Paris,  4,  184,  203. 

Paris,  treaty  of,  after  French  and  Indian 
War,  123-124  ;  after  the  Revolution, 
203-204  ;  after  war  with  Spain,  530- 
531  ;  Declaration  of  Paris,  284 ; 
Peace  Conference,  617-627. 

Parker,  Theodore,  377. 

Parkman,  Francis,  historian,  568. 

Parliament,  British,  representation  in, 
416. 

Parties,  political,  rise  of,  241-242 ; 
reorganization  of,  313,  324.  See 
Federalist,  Republican,  Democratic, 
and  Whig  parties. 

Paterson  (N.  J.),  558. 

Patroon  system,  on  the  Hudson,  96-97. 

Peace  Conference,  617-627. 

Peking,  siege  of,  534. 

Peninsular  Campaign,  442. 

Penn,  William,  life  of,  104-105 ;  founds 
Pennsylvania,  105-107. 

Pennsylvania,  69,  104,  105-108,  126, 
129,  139,  157,  160,  213,  230,  240, 
292,  294,  295,  300,  319,  409,  410, 
447,  457,  558. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  140. 

Pensions,  military,  462,  589. 

Perry,  Capt.  Oliver  H.,  274-275. 

Perry,  Matthew,  367. 

Pershing,  Gen.  John  Joseph,  551,  592- 
593. 

Peru,  conquest  of,  by  Pizarro,  22. 

Petition,  right  of,  347-348. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart,  568. 

Philadelphia,  107,  126,  155-156,  160, 
164,  167,  177,  178,  182,  184-185, 
187,  203,  219,  237,  239,  246,  319, 
321,  408,  416,  447,  563. 

Philippine  Islands,  discovered,  123 ; 
ceded  by  Spain,  531 ;  insurrection 
in,  533 ;  development  of  self- 
government  in,  533. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  anti-slavery  orator, 
346,  347. 

Pickens,  Andrew,  in  Revolution,  198. 


INDEX 


xxxix 


Pickett,  Gen.  George  E.,  Confederate 

commander,  449. 
Pierce,  Franklin,  President,  383-390. 
Pike,  Zebulon,  explorations  of,  262. 
Pilgrims,    emigrate    from    Holland    to 

America,  80-82.     See  Separatists. 
Pirates,  along  Carolina  coast,  74 ;    in 

the  Mediterranean,  262-263. 
Pitt,  William,  British  premier  during 

Seven  Years'  War,  120 ;    sides  with 

colonists,   144,   152,  161,  171. 
Pittsburgh,  45,  190,  240,  292,  316,  317, 

319,  507,  508,  558. 
Pittsburg  Landing  (Tenn.),  battle  at, 

431-132. 
Pizarro  (pi-za'ro),  Francisco,  conquers 

Peru,    22. 
Plantation    system,    introduction    of, 

296-297,    298-300;     in   later   years, 

406-407  ;    decline  of,  497-498. 
Plattsburg  (N.  Y.),  battle  near,  279. 
Plymouth  Colony,  founding  of,  80-82  ; 

early  history  of,   82-84 ;    joined   to 

Massachusetts,  85,  94. 
Plymouth  Company,  chartered,  58,  92. 
Plymouth  Harbor,  81. 
Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  author,  345. 
Poilu  (pwa'loo),  605,  634. 
Poland,  624,  631. 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  355-368. 
Polo,  Marco,  early  traveler,  6,  10. 
Ponce    de     Leon     (pon'tha,  da  la-6n') , 

Spanish  explorer,  20-21. 
Pope,  Gen.  John,   Union  commander, 

433,  444. 
Pope,    head    of    the    Roman    Catholic 

Church,     78 ;      establishes     demar- 
cation line,  15. 
Population,  of  English  colonies,   126- 

127 ;     center   of,   in   United   States, 

403. 
Populist  party,  520. 
Port  Royal,  33,  39. 
Porto  Rico,  20,  525,  531,  533. 
Portuguese,  early  voyages  of,  7-8. 
Potomac  River,  113,  237,  430,  445. 
Presbyterians,  139. 
Prescott,    Col.    William,    at    Bunker 

Hill,  165-166. 
Prescott,  William  H.,  historian,  346. 
President,    office   of,    226 ;     change   in 

method  of  election,  255 ;    third  term 

tradition,     512 ;      Presidential    Suc- 
cession Act,  517-518. 
Primary,  direct,  547. 


Prince  Henry,  the  Navigator,  6-7. 
Princeton  (N.  J.),  battle  of,  179. 
Princeton  University,  140. 
Printing-press,  3,  25,  408. 
Privateering,  in  War  of  1812,  278-279. 
Progressive  party,  550,  552. 
Prohibition,  movement  for,  342,  549. 
Proprietary  colonies,  69-76,  101-108. 
Protection,  policy  of.     See  Tariff. 
Protestant  Reformation,  78-79. 
Providence  (R.  I.),  settled,  89-90. 
Prussia,  569-573. 

Public  Domain.     See  Lands,  public. 
Public     improvements.     See     Internal 

improvements. 
Pueblo  Indians,  the,  46,  48. 
Puritans,  origin  and  ideals  of,  78-79 ; 

persecution  of,  79-80;    emigrate  to 

America,  80-82. 
Putnam,   Gen.    Rufus,   in    Ohio,    166, 

215. 

Quakers,  99,  103-107. 

Quebec,  32,  33-34,  35,  39,   116,   121- 

123,  169,  273. 
Queenston  Heights,  battle  of,  274. 

Railroads,  early,  320-322;  in  South, 
495-496,  499;  in  the  West,  488- 
490 ;  combinations  among,  503-504  ; 
regulation  of,  504 :  taken  over  by 
government  in  World  War,  587. 

Rainbow  Division,  605. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  29-30. 

Randolph,  Edmund,  235. 

Rawlinson,  General,  610. 

Reaper,  invention  of,  422. 

Reclamation  Act,  541-542 ;  forest 
reserves,  540-541. 

Reconstruction,  Lincoln's  plan,  465 ; 
Johnson's,  466-467 ;  congressional, 
467-469 ;  carpet-bag  government, 
470-472. 

Red  Cross,  590-592,  620. 

Referendum,   547-548. 

Religion,  of  the  Indians,  52 ;  in- 
tolerance in  England,  79-80,  85; 
motive  for  colonization,  86,  105; 
in  New  England  Colonies,  88-89,  90, 
137-139  ;  in  Middle  Colonies,  71,  99, 
103,  106;  work  of  churches,  346; 
denominations  divided  over  slavery 
question,  370. 

Renaissance,  the,  3. 

Reparation,  by  Germany,  622-623. 


xl 


INDEX 


Representation,  conflicting  views  of 
Great  Britain  and  Colonies,  145- 
146 ;  dispute  over,  in  Constitu- 
tional Convention,  223-224. 

Republican  party,  389-390,  397-398. 

Republican  party  (founded  by  Jeffer- 
son) .     See  Democratic  party. 

Resumption  Act,  519. 

Revere,  Paul,  in  Revolution,  164. 

Revolution,  American,  causes  of,  143- 
158,  160-162  ;  first  battles  of,  163- 
167;  account  of,  168-203;  results, 
203-206. 

Revolution,  the  English,  102,  144;  the 
French,  244,  287 ;  the  Russian,  596. 

Revolution,  Industrial,  287-292. 

Reynolds,  General  John  Fulton,  448. 

Rheims  (remz),  604. 

Rhode  Island,  89-90,  93,  129,  139,  221, 
230,  283,  290. 

Rhodes,  James  Ford,  568. 

Richmond  (Va.),  200-201,  423,  424, 
442,  444,  451,  452-453. 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  568. 

Rimaucourt  (rejmo  coor'),  607. 

Rio  Grande,  262,  307,  363,  481. 

Roads,  in  colonial  times,  315;  turn- 
pikes, 315;  National  Road,  295- 
296,  315-316. 

Roanoke  Island,  settled,  29-30. 

Robertson,  James,  189. 

Rochambeau,  Count,  in  Revolution,  201 . 

Roosevelt,  Theodore  ;  President,  536- 
546 ;  leads  Progressive  movement, 
550,  552. 

Rosecrans,  Gen.  William  S.,  Union 
commander,  433,  436. 

Rumania,  596,  597,  613. 

Rush-Bagot  Agreement,  284-285. 

Russia,  claims  Pacific  Coast,  308  ;  atti- 
tude during  Civil  War,  427 ;  sells 
Alaska,  481 ;  war  with  Japan,  545, 
in  World  War,  573,  596-597. 

Ryan,  John  W.,  586. 

St.  Augustine  (Fla.),  21,  23. 

St.    Clair,    Gen.   Arthur,    governor   of 

Northwest  Territory,  215;    defeated 

by  Indians,  240. 
St.  Germain  (sang  zhar  mang'),  627. 
St.     Lawrence   River,    15,   32-33,   42, 

43,  121,  122,  204. 
St.  Lawrence  Valley,  39. 
St.  Louis,  317,  408,  508. 
St.  Mary's  (Md.),  70,  71. 


St.   Mihiel,   capture  of  (sang  meyel'), 

606. 
St.  Quentin  (sang  kangtang'),  610. 
Saar  Basin,  623,  624. 
Sabbath,  the  Puritan,  137-139. 
Sacramento  Valley,  367,  372-373. 
Salem  (Mass.),  witchcraft  delusion  in, 

139-140. 
Samoan  Islands,  485. 
Sampson,     Admiral     William     T.,     in 

Spanish-American  War,  530. 
San  Antonio  (Tex.) ,  353. 
San  Francisco,  367,  561. 
Sandys,  Sir  Edwin,  62,  64. 
San  Jacinto   (san  ja-sin'to),  battle  of, 

354. 
San  Juan  (san  ho-an')  Hill,  530. 
San  Salvador  Island,  13. 
Santa   Anna,    Gen.   Antonio   L.,    353, 

354,  364,  366.  ' 
Santa  Fe  Railroad,  495-496. 
Santa  Fe  trail,  373. 
Santiago,  Cuba,  530. 
Santo  Domingo,  109,  544-545. 
Saratoga,  surrender  of  Burgoyne  at,  182. 
Savannah  (Georgia),  76,  439. 
Schleswig-Holstein,  569. 
Schley  (shla),  Admiral  Winfield  Scott, 

in  Spanish-American  War,  530. 
Schwab,  Charles  M.,  584,  585. 
Schools.     See  Education. 
Scotch,  immigration  of,  to  colonies,  74, 

76,  126. 
Scott,    General    Winfield,    in   War   of 

1812,   276;    in   Mexican  War,   363, 

365-366  ;   nominated  for  Presidency, 

383 ;    in  Civil  War,  423. 
Schuyler,  Gen.  Philip,  in  Revolution, 

181-182. 
Seal  fisheries,  dispute  over,  485. 
Search,  practice  of,  247,  270,  272,  281, 

284. 
Secession,  331,  391-401,  415-416,  421, 

462. 
Sedan,  occupation  of,  608. 
Sedition  Act,  251-252. 
Senate,  the  United  States,  composition 

of,    225;     election    of    Senators    by 

direct  vote,  549. 
Separatists  or  Independents,  origin  of, 

78-79;   emigrate  to  Holland,  79-80; 

come  to  America,  80-82. 
Serapis,  British  warship,  192-193. 
Servants,  indented,  63,  131-132. 
Servia,  573. 


INDEX 


xli 


Seven  Days'  Battle  in  Virginia,  444. 

Seventeenth  Amendment,  549. 

Seven  Years'  War,  112. 

Sevier,  John,  189,  216. 

Seward,  William  H.,  anti-slavery 
leader,  377,  400;  candidate  for 
presidential  nomination,  397  ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  417,  481. 

Sewing  machine,  invented  by  Howe, 
410. 

Shays'  Rebellion,  217. 

Shenandoah  Valley,  in  Civil  War,  424, 
442-443,  447,  452. 

Sheridan,  Gen.  Philip  H.,  Union  com- 
mander, 452,  453. 

Sherman,  John,  519. 

Sherman,  Roger,  160,  173,  221,  224. 

Sherman  Silver  Law,  520-521. 

Sherman,  Gen.  William  T.,  Union  com- 
mander, 425,  436,  437,  438,  439, 
440. 

Sherman  Anti-trust  Act,  503. 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  431-432. 

Shipbuilding,  in  colonial  times,  130; 
after  1830,  411;  decline  in,  after 
Civil  War,  412  ;  during  World  War, 
584-585. 

Silver,  discovered  in  Nevada,  491 ; 
demonetized  by  Congress,  520. 

Sims,  Admiral  William  S.,  580-581. 

Sixteenth  Amendment,  485. 

Slater,  Samuel,  290. 

Slave  trade,  132,  224. 

Slavery,  introduced  into  Virginia, 
63-64  ;  during  Colonial  period,  132  ; 
invention  of  cotton  gin,  290 ; 
becomes  sectional  question,  301- 
303 ;  Missouri  Compromise,  309- 
310 ;  attacked  by  Abolitionists, 
346-348;  dispute  over  Texas,  354- 
355,  368;  Wilmot  Proviso,  369- 
370;  character  of,  in  South,  370- 
371 ;  Compromise  of  1850,  375-378  ; 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  378,  380 ;  Dred 
Scott  decision,  391-392  ;  inefficiency 
of  slave  labor,  406 ;  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill,  384-386  ;  abolished  in 
District  of  Columbia,  457  ;  Emanci- 
pation, 457-458 ;  abolished  by 
Thirteenth  Amendment,  462. 

Slidell,  John,  427. 

Smith,  Capt.  John,  in  Virginia,  60-61. 

Smuggling,  colonial,  147-148. 

Socialism,  510. 

Sons  of  Liberty,  colonial  society,  151. 


Soto,  Hernando  de,  Spanish  explorer, 
22-23. 

South,  local  government  in,  128 ; 
opposes  protective  tariff,  323,  328- 
330 ;  military  strength  of  North  and 
South,  421-422;  reconstruction  in, 
465-473,  477-478 ;  the  New  South, 
497-500.     See  Slavery. 

South  America,  discovered,  13  ;  revolts 
from  Spain,  307-308  ;  relations  with 
United  States,  483-484. 

South  Carolina,  72-74,  126,  127,  130- 
131,  132,  139,  157,  160,  188,  198, 
213,  230,  294,  296,  329,  330,  331- 
333,  398,  399,  405,  471,  476,  477,  498. 

South  Dakota,  384,  490. 

Southwest,  explored  by  Coronado,  22  ; 
development  of,  495-496. 

Spain,  aids  Columbus,  10-11  ;  claims 
the  New  World,  15;  first  American 
colonies,  20-26 ;  Spanish  explorers, 
20-23 ;  conquest  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  21-22;  founds  St.  Augustine, 
23 ;  New  World  empire,  25-26 ; 
Spanish  missions,  23-24 ;  decline 
of  Spain's  power,  26 ;  relations  with 
England,  26-28;  defeat  of  Spanish 
Armada,  28;  ally  of  France,  184; 
treaty  with  United  States  (1795), 
247-248  ;  cedes  Louisiana  to  France, 
257-258  ;  Florida,  treaty  with,  306- 
307  ;  loses  South  American  colonies, 
307-308. 

Spanish-American  War,  525-533. 

Spanish  Armada,  defeat  of,  28. 

Specie  Circular,  334,  336. 

Specie  payments.     See  Money. 

Spinning  jenny,  288. 

Spoils  System,  328,  513. 

Squatter  sovereignty,  385-387. 

Stamp  Act,  148-152. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  150. 

Standard  Oil  Company,  501,  502,  503. 

Standish,  Miles,  in  Plymouth  Colony, 
83. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  in  Lincoln's 
cabinet,  417,  470. 

Star-Spangled  Banner,  composed,  280. 

Stark,  Col.  John,  in  Revolution,  166, 
181-182. 

State  governments,  209,  211,  228. 

State  rights,  223,  229,  253  254,  331- 
332,  415. 

Steamboat,  invention  of,  316. 

Steam  engine,  invention  of,  288. 


xlii 


INDEX 


Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  568. 

Steel,  increased  use  of,  556-557. 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  399. 

Stephenson,  George,  English  engineer, 
320. 

Stettinius,  Edward  R.,  586. 

Steuben,  Baron  Friedrich,  in  Revolu- 
tion, 185,  200,  201. 

Stockton,  Francis  Richard,  568. 

Stony  Point,  captured  by  Gen.  Wayne, 
195. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  author,  345, 
380-381. 

Strikes,  507-509. 

Stuyvesant  (sti've-sant) ,  Peter,  gover- 
nor of  New  Netherland,  97,  99-101. 

Submarines,  attack  neutral  shipping, 
574-578. 

Suffrage,  colonial,  87-88;  in  1830, 
341 ;  for  freedmen,  473  ;  for  women, 
548-549. 

Sullivan,  Gen.  John,  189. 

Sumter,  Fort,  fired  on,  419. 

Sumter,  Gen.  Thomas,  in  Revolution, 
198. 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
established,  226-227,  236  ;  authority 
of,  255,  331 ;  Dred  Scott  decision, 
391-392. 

Swedes,  colonize  Delaware,  98. 

Syria,  611. 

Tacoma  (Wash.),  490. 

Taft,  William  H.,  President,  549-550. 

Talleyrand,  French  minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  251. 

Taney  (taw'ni),  Robert  B.,  chief-jus- 
tice, 391. 

Tariff,  the:  act  of  1789,  239;  of  1816, 
283 ;  tariff  of  abominations,  323, 
328-330 ;  opposition  of  South  Caro- 
lina, 329,  331-333  ;  McKinley  Tariff, 
516;  Wilson  Tariff,  517;  Dingley 
Tariff,  517;  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff, 
549-550;  Underwood  Tariff,  517; 
Tariff  Commission,  517. 

Taylor,  Gen.  Zachary,  in  Mexican  War, 
363-364 ;    President,  372-377. 

Taxation,  colonial  controversy  over, 
143-144,  146-153;  under  the  Con- 
federation, 216-217  ;  under  the  Con- 
stitution, 228 ;  Hamilton's  plan 
for,  239-240;  during  Civil  War, 
459;  in  World  War,  588.  See 
Tariff,  Income  Tax. 


Tea,  tax  on,  154-155;  Boston  Tea 
Party,   156-157. 

Teachers.     See  Education. 

Tecumseh  (te-kum'se),  Indian  chief, 
271. 

Telegraph,  408. 

Telephone,  558. 

Temperance  reform,  342,  549. 

Tennessee,  189,  216,  249,  293,  294, 
324,  370,  398,  403,  421,  430,  431,  433, 
434,  468. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act,  469-470. 

Territory,  federal,  government  of, 
300-301  ;  acquisition  of  :  Northwest 
Territory,  204  ;  Louisiana  Purchase, 
258-260;  Florida  Purchase,  306- 
307 ;  annexation  of  Texas,  356 ; 
Oregon  acquisition,  357-359  ;  Mexi- 
can Cession,  366 ;  Gadsden  Pur- 
chase, 367 ;  Alaska,  481 ;  Samoan 
Islands,  485 ;  Porto  Rico,  533 ;  the 
Philippines,  533 ;  Hawaii,  533 ; 
Panama  Canal  Zone,  538. 

Texas,  306,  343,  353-355,  356,  362, 
363,  399,  435,  469,  496. 

Textile  industry.     See  Manufacturing. 

Thames  River  (Ont.),  battle  near,  275. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  first  celebration, 
83. 

Thaxter,  Celia,  568. 

Thomas,  Gen.  George  H.,  Union 
commander,  435,  436. 

Thoreau  (tho'rS),  Henry  David, 
author,  345. 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  presidential  candi- 
date, 476,  477. 

Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  271,  274. 

Tobacco,  62,  63,  66,  405. 

Toleration,  in  Maryland,  71 ;  in 
Rhode  Island,  90;  in  Pennsylvania, 
105.     See  Religion. 

Tories.     See  Loyalists. 

Toscanelli,  Florentine  astronomer,  9. 

Town  meetings,  in  colonial  New  Eng- 
land, 82,  87-88,  128 ;  suppressed  in 
Massachusetts,  157. 

Towns,  early  New  England,  127-128. 

Townshend  Acts,  152-154. 

Trade.     See  Commerce. 

Transportation,  roads  in  colonial  days, 
316 ;  turnpikes  and  the  National 
Road,  315-316;  the  steamboat, 
316-318;  canals,  318-320;  early 
railways,  320-322  ;  development  of 
railways,  408,  488-490,  495,  496. 


INDEX 


xliii 


Trent,  British  steamship,  427-428. 
Trenton  (N.  J.),  battle  of,  178. 
Trianon  (tre'a  nSng'),  620. 
Trieste,  632. 
Tripoli,  218,  262-263. 
Trusts,  formation  of,  501  ;  characteris- 
tics, 502  ;    regulation  of,  503-504. 
Turkey,  573. 
Turks,  the,  26. 
Turnpikes.     See  Roads. 
Tweed  Ring,  the,  473-475. 
Tyler,  John,  President,  351-355. 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  345,  380-381. 

Underground  railroad,  380. 

Ukraine,  the,  596,  597,  631. 

Union,  steps  toward :  New  England 
Confederation,  91-92  ;  Albany  Plan, 
117;  Stamp  Act  Congress,  150; 
Committees  of  Correspondence,  154- 
155;  First  Continental  Congress, 
160-161;  Second  Continental  Con- 
gress, 167-168,  209  ;  Declaration  of 
Independence,  170-174 ;  Articles  of 
Confederation,  212,  216-218,  228- 
229 ;  Constitutional  Convention, 
221-229  ;  nullification  and,  253-254, 
331-332;  threatened  by  secession, 
398-400;  415-417;  effect  of  Civil 
War  on,  462. 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  488-489. 

Unions,  labor,  505. 

Universities,  state,  343-344,  567. 

Utah,  48,  367,  376,  488,  491,  548. 

Vallandigham,  Clement  L.,  460-461. 
Valley  Forge,  in  Revolution,  185-187. 
Van  Buren,    Martin,   President,   334- 

338 ;  Free  Soil  candidate,  372. 
Vancouver,  George,  British  navigator, 

357. 
Vaux  (vo),  capture  of,  603. 
Venezuela,     boundary     dispute     with 

Great    Britain,    484,    486;      claims 

against,  544. 
Venice,  6. 

Vera  Cruz  expedition,  551. 
Verdun,  603,  606. 
Vermont,  248,  301,  344. 
Verrazano  (ver-rat-sa'no) ,  Giovanni  da, 

early  navigator,  32. 
Versailles  (varsi'),  569,  612,  621. 
Vesle  (val),  601. 
Vespucius    (ves-po'che-us) ,    Americus, 

New  World  named  for,  17. 


Vicksburg  (Miss.),  capture  of,  434, 
435,  447. 

Vincennes  (vin-senz'),  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, 190-191. 

Virginia,  29,  57-67,  71,  126,  130,  132, 
139,  149,  150,  157,  158,  160,  161, 
189,  199,  200,  211,  212,  213,  218- 
219,  230,  237,  240,  253,  292,  296, 
330,  394-395,  398,  405,  412,  421, 
429,  449,  469. 

Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions, 
252-253,  329,  330. 

Vise  (veza/),  Belgium,  591. 

Vote.     See  Suffrage. 

Waltham  (Mass.),  558. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  568. 

Warner,  Seth,  in  Revolution,  169. 

Wars,  French  and  Indian,  111-124; 
the  Revolution,  143-206;  War  of 
1812,  269-285;  Mexican,  362-368; 
Civil  War,  415-463;  Indian  Wars, 
491,  493-494;  Spanish- American 
War,  525-533;    World  War,  569. 

Washington,  George,  in  French  and 
Indian  War,  115,  117-119;  in 
Revolution,  168,  170,  174,  175-179, 
184-188,  203  ;  resigns  commission, 
205-206 ;  criticizes  Confederation 
government,  219;  in  Constitutional 
Convention,  221,  223,  230;  inau- 
gurated President,  230-231 ;  Presi- 
dent, 234-249;  Neutrality  Procla- 
mation, 245-246 ;  Farewell  Address, 
248-249 ;    death,  249. 

Washington,  city  of,  becomes  National 
capital,  237,  256 ;  captured  by 
British,  279,  280;  threatened  by 
Confederates,  423,  424,  425,  441, 
442,  445,  447.  See  District  of 
Columbia. 

Washington  (state),  359,  490,  549. 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  500. 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  245. 

Watt,  James,  discovers  steam  power, 
288. 

Wayne,  Gen.  Anthony,  in  Revolution, 
195,  201 ;  defeats  Indians  in  North- 
west, 240-241. 

Webster,  Daniel,  Bunker  Hill  oration, 
312  ;  debate  with  Hayne,  330-331 ; 
rank  as  orator,  345-346 ;  Webster- 
Ashburton  treaty,  352-353  ;  Seventh 
of  March  speech,  376-378,  383. 

Webster-Ashburton    Treaty,    352-353. 


xliv 


INDEX 


Welles,  Gideon,  418. 

West,  during  the  Revolution,  189-191 ; 
states  cede  claims  in,  211,  212-213; 
Northwest  Territory,  214-215; 
westward  movement,  42-43,  44-45, 
215-216,  293-303,  356-360,  403, 
405 ;  speculation  in  lands,  335-336 ; 
recent  development,  488-496. 

West  India  Company,  Dutch,  40,  96, 
97. 

West  Indies,  discovered  by  Columbus, 
13  ;  Spanish  colony  in,  20 ;  acquired 
by  England,  109,  123;  trade  with, 
247.     See  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

West  Point,  195-196. 

West  Virginia,  69,  316,  343,  429, 
441. 

Weyler,  Gen.,  Spanish  commander  in 
Cuba,  526. 

Whig  party,  formed,  337-338;  Presi- 
dent Tyler  breaks  with,  351-352; 
slavery  issue  destroys,  389. 

Whiskey  Insurrection,  240. 

Whitman,  Walt,  568. 

Whitney,  Eli,  inventor,  290. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  author,  344, 
345. 

Wildcat  Banks,  335-336. 

Wilderness  Campaign,  451. 

Wilkes,  Capt.  Charles,  in  Civil  War, 
427. 

Wilkins,  Mary  E.  (Mrs.  Freeman),  568. 

William  and  Mary  College,  founded, 
140. 

William  II,  emperor  of  Germany,  571, 
572. 


Williams,  Roger,  founds  Providence, 
89-90,  93. 

Wilmington  (Del.),  founded  by  Swedes, 
98. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  369-370. 

Wilson,  James,  221. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  President,  550- 
553 ;    in  the  World  War,  574-578. 

Wilson  Tariff,  517. 

Winthrop,  John,  leader  of  Massachu- 
setts colonists,  86. 

Wisconsin,  215,  370. 

Witchcraft  delusion,  in  Massachusetts, 
139-140. 

Wolfe,  Gen.  James,  captures  Quebec, 
121-123. 

Woman  suffrage,  548-549. 

Women,  in  colonial  times,  136 ;  in 
literature,  345,  380-381;  suffrage 
and,  548-549  ;  aid  in  social  reforms, 
341-342 ;  support  child  labor  legis- 
lation, 506 ;  support  prohibition 
movement,  549. 

Woolen  industry.     See  Manufactures. 

Workmen's  Compensation  Acts,  506. 

World's  Fair,  at  Chicago,  560. 

Wright  brothers,  560. 

Writs  of  Assistance,  148. 

Wyoming,  359,  367,  384,  490. 

X.  Y.  Z.  Affair,  251. 

Yale  University,  founded,  140. 
Yorktown  (Va.),  Cornwallis  surrenders 

at,  201-203  ;   in  Civil  War,  442. 
Ypres  (ee'pr'),  603. 


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